Ancient and Medieval States of Eastern Europe: Map & History

The Scythians as well as the Saka of Central Asia spoke a group of languages belonging to the eastern branch of the Iranic language family. A specific feature of the language was the transformation of the sound /δ/ (/ð/) into /l/. The Scythian languages may have formed a dialect continuum: "Scytho-Sarmatian" in the west and "Scytho-Khotanese" or Saka in the east. The Scythian languages were mostly marginalised and assimilated as a consequence of the late antiquity and early Middle Ages Slavic and Turkic expansions. The western (Sarmatian) group of ancient Scythian survived as the medieval language of the Alans and eventually gave rise to the modern Ossetian language.

From Wikipedia: Scythians · Culture and society: Language (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The Scythians exported iron, grain and slaves to the Greek colonies, and animal products, grain, fish, honey, wax, forest products, furs, skins, wood, horses, cattle, sheep, and slaves to mainland Greece on both sides of the Aegean Sea. Also sold to the Greeks by the Scythians were beavers and beaver-skins, and rare furs that the Scythians had themselves bought from the populations living to their north and east such as the Thyssagetae and Iurcae of the Ural Mountains who hunted rare animals and sewed their skins into clothing. Other Scythian exports to Greece included the metallurgical production of Kamianka, Scythian horses, and Scythian mercenary mounted archers.

From Wikipedia: Scythians · Economy: Trade (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Their typical weapon was the very recurved or reflex composite bow that was easy to use for mounted warriors. Scythian bows were the most complex composite bows in both their recurved profiles and their cross-sections, highly engineered and made from wood, horn, sinew, and sturgeon fish glue through laborious craftsmanship, and were capable of delivering military draw weights. Although the shape of Scythian arrows changed with time, they maintained a basic structure. Scythian arrows had shafts made of reed or birch wood, with arrowheads mostly of bronze, and more rarely iron and bone. The shape of Scythian bows and the shape of their bronze arrowheads made them the most powerful firing weapon of their time, due to which they were adopted by West Asian armies in the 7th century BC.

From Wikipedia: Scythians · Warfare: Archery (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Scythian society constited of kinship structures where clan groups formed the basis of the community and of political organisation. Clan elders wielded considerable power and were able to depose kings. As an extension of clan-based relations, a custom of blood brotherhood existed among the Scythians.

From Wikipedia: Scythians · Culture and society: Social organisation (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The defeat against Philip II was followed by a series of military defeats which led to a significant decline during the late 4th century BC. Although the experience of Philip II's military dealings with the Scythians led his son Alexander the Great to choose to avoid attacking them, his conquests harmed trade networks Pontic Olbia depended on. In 331 or 330 BC, Alexander III's general Zopyrion campaigned against the Scythian kingdom. Although Zōpyriōn's army was defeated by the Scythians, his attack initiated the final decline of Olbia, and various tribes from the West such as the Celts started moving into its territories.

From Wikipedia: Scythians · History: Decline and fall of Pontic Scythia (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The inroads of the Cimmerians and the Scythians into West Asia over the course of the 8th to 7th centuries BC, which were early precursors of the later invasions of West Asia by steppe nomads such as the Huns, various Turkic peoples, and the Mongols, in Late Antiquity and the Mediaeval Period, had destabilised the political balance which had prevailed in the region between the dominant great powers of Assyria, Urartu, and Phrygia, thus irreversibly changing the geopolitical situation of West Asia. These Cimmerians and Scythians also influenced the developments in West Asia through the spread of the steppe nomad military technology brought by them into this region.

From Wikipedia: Scythians · Legacy: Antiquity (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Greek colonization in the Black sea region dates back into the Greek Dark Ages, from which there is ample evidence of cultural and economic exchange as well as hostility between Greek and local populations, such as the Thracians, Dacians, and later Scythians.

From Wikipedia: Bosporan Kingdom · Economy (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The Bosporan kingdom under the Spartocid kings was heavily influenced by the mixing of local Scythian and Greeks at all levels of society, particularly in the nobility. In an internal conflict between Satyrus II and his brother Eumelus, the royal Bosporan army was said to contain no more than 2,000 Greeks, and an equal number of Thracians fighting as mercenaries. The vast majority of the army was Scythian, with 10,000 cavalry and over 20,000 infantry reported. Eumelus, allied with the Sirace king Aripharnes, brought 20,000 Scythian cavalry and even more infantry.

From Wikipedia: Bosporan Kingdom · Military (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The Jiankun (堅昆) [Qirghiz] tribe, [unlike the Türks], is not of wolf descent. Their ancestors were born in a cave located to the north of the Quman Mountain. They themselves say that in the ancient times there was a god who mated with a cow in that cave. The people's hair is yellow, eyes are green, and beards are red.

From Wikipedia: Yenisei Kyrgyz · Origins (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The Tang Huiyao (961 CE), citing the Protector General of Anxi Ge Jiayun, states that the Kyrgyz, known to the Chinese as the Jiankun, all had red hair and green eyes. The ones with dark eyes and black hair were believed to be descended from Li Ling, a Han dynasty general whom the Kyrgyz claimed to have married a Kyrgyz woman and was sent to aid in their governance after he surrendered to the Xiongnu. The name Jiankun was later changed to Xiajiasi; according to a translation clerk, Xiajiasi meant "yellow head and red face" and this was what the Uyghurs called them; Pulleyblank (1990) proposes that "yellow head and red face" was a folk etymology based on Turkic qizqil ~ qïzïl "red".

From Wikipedia: Yenisei Kyrgyz · Language (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The etymology of the ethnonym Bulgar is not completely understood; it is difficult to trace the name back earlier than the 4th century AD. It is generally believed to derive from the Turkic verb bulğha (to "stir", "mix", "disturb", "confuse"), possibly suggesting that other Turkic peoples regarded the Bulgars as a "mixed" people, or as "rebellious".

From Wikipedia: Old Great Bulgaria · Origins (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The events following Kubrat's death are described by the Byzantine Patriarch Nikephoros I. In the times of Emperor Constantine IV, he narrates, Kubrat died and Batbayan, the eldest of his five sons, was left in charge of the state. Under strong Khazar pressure, Kubrat's other sons disregarded their father's advice to stay together in order to resist the enemies and soon departed, taking their own tribes.

From Wikipedia: Old Great Bulgaria · Disintegration (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The origin of the early Bulgars remains a topic of scholarly debate, as their precise beginnings are still unclear, but most researchers believe their homeland was likely situated somewhere in the vast region stretching between modern-day Kazakhstan and the North Caucasian steppes. Interaction with the Hunnic tribes, causing the migration, may have occurred there, and the Pontic–Caspian steppe seems the most likely location.

From Wikipedia: Volga Bulgaria · History: Origin and creation of the state (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The Bulgar language belonged to the Oghuric branch of the Turkic language family, whose only extant member is the Chuvash language. The language persisted in the Volga region up until the 13th or 14th century. Although there is no direct evidence, some scholars believe it gave rise to modern Chuvash language while others support the idea that Chuvash is another distinct Oghur Turkic language.

From Wikipedia: Volga Bulgaria · Language (CC BY-SA 4.0)

From the beginning of the 13th century, the Volga Bulgars were subject to multiple raids from the East Slavic principalities as multiple skirmishes took place for control of the Unzha River which was an important commercial route. In 1220, the Grand Duke Yuri II of Vladimir captured Ustiug and besieged the important Bulgar town of Aşlı. The consequence of this was that Vladimir-Suzdal gained access to Volga Bulgaria's northern trade routes and hindered the means of the Bulgars acquiring fur. The Nikon Chronicle also details that following this, Yuri II began amassing a large force of Rus' for an even larger campaign against the Bulgars. The Bulgars would send entreaties and proposals for peace but these were all rejected. Yuri travelled with his army to Omut where further entreaties for peace were received from the Bulgars however these were still rejected.

From Wikipedia: Volga Bulgaria · History: Decline (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Prior to the emergence of Kievan Rus' in the 9th century, most of the area north of the Black Sea was primarily populated by eastern Slavic tribes. In the northern region around Novgorod were the Ilmen Slavs and neighboring Krivichi, who occupied territories surrounding the headwaters of the West Dvina, Dnieper and Volga rivers. To their north, in the Ladoga and Karelia regions, were the Chud: various Baltic Finnic peoples. In the south, in the area around Kiev, were the Poliane, the Drevliane to the west of the Dnieper, and the Severiane to the east. To their north and east were the Vyatichi, and to their south was forested land settled by Slav farmers, giving way to steppelands populated by nomadic herdsmen. Some of the East Slavic tribes belonged to the Luka-Raikovetska culture, while others to the Volyntsevo culture.

From Wikipedia: Kievan Rus' · History: Origin (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The rapid expansion of the Rus' to the south led to conflict and volatile relationships with the Khazars and other neighbors on the Pontic steppe. The Khazars dominated trade from the Volga-Don steppes to eastern Crimea and the northern Caucasus during the 8th century, an era historians call the 'Pax Khazarica', trading and frequently allying with the Byzantine Empire against Persians and Arabs. In the late 8th century, the collapse of the Göktürk Khaganate led the Magyars and the Pechenegs to migrate west from Central Asia into the steppe region, leading to military conflict, disruption of trade, and instability within the Khazar Khaganate. The Rus' and Slavs had earlier allied with the Khazars against Arab raids on the Caucasus, but they increasingly worked against them to secure control of the trade routes.

From Wikipedia: Kievan Rus' · History: Volatile steppe politics (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The rival Principality of Polotsk was contesting the power of the Grand Prince by occupying Novgorod, while Rostislav Vladimirovich was fighting for the Black Sea port of Tmutarakan belonging to Chernigov. Three of Yaroslav's sons who first allied together found themselves fighting each other especially after their defeat to the Cuman forces in 1068 at the Battle of the Alta River.

From Wikipedia: Kievan Rus' · History: Fragmentation and decline (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Prior to the emergence of Kievan Rus' in the 9th century, most of the area north of the Black Sea was primarily populated by eastern Slavic tribes. In the northern region around Novgorod were the Ilmen Slavs and neighboring Krivichi, who occupied territories surrounding the headwaters of the West Dvina, Dnieper and Volga rivers. To their north, in the Ladoga and Karelia regions, were the Chud: various Baltic Finnic peoples. In the south, in the area around Kiev, were the Poliane, the Drevliane to the west of the Dnieper, and the Severiane to the east. To their north and east were the Vyatichi, and to their south was forested land settled by Slav farmers, giving way to steppelands populated by nomadic herdsmen. Some of the East Slavic tribes belonged to the Luka-Raikovetska culture, while others to the Volyntsevo culture.

From Wikipedia: Kievan Rus' · History: Origin (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The rapid expansion of the Rus' to the south led to conflict and volatile relationships with the Khazars and other neighbors on the Pontic steppe. The Khazars dominated trade from the Volga-Don steppes to eastern Crimea and the northern Caucasus during the 8th century, an era historians call the 'Pax Khazarica', trading and frequently allying with the Byzantine Empire against Persians and Arabs. In the late 8th century, the collapse of the Göktürk Khaganate led the Magyars and the Pechenegs to migrate west from Central Asia into the steppe region, leading to military conflict, disruption of trade, and instability within the Khazar Khaganate. The Rus' and Slavs had earlier allied with the Khazars against Arab raids on the Caucasus, but they increasingly worked against them to secure control of the trade routes.

From Wikipedia: Kievan Rus' · History: Volatile steppe politics (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The rival Principality of Polotsk was contesting the power of the Grand Prince by occupying Novgorod, while Rostislav Vladimirovich was fighting for the Black Sea port of Tmutarakan belonging to Chernigov. Three of Yaroslav's sons who first allied together found themselves fighting each other especially after their defeat to the Cuman forces in 1068 at the Battle of the Alta River.

From Wikipedia: Kievan Rus' · History: Fragmentation and decline (CC BY-SA 4.0)

By the 11th and 12th centuries, the nomadic confederacy of the Cumans and (Eastern) Kipchaks (who were a distinct tribe with whom the Cumans created a confederacy, although other sources say that Cumans and Kipchak are simply different names for the same tribe) were the dominant force over the vast territories stretching from present-day Kazakhstan, southern Russia, Ukraine, to southern Moldavia and eastern Wallachia in present-day Romania. Considering the nomadic way of life of these peoples, these frontiers can be regarded only as approximate; hence there were various definitions of what Cumania meant over the course of time.

From Wikipedia: Cumania · History and political interactions (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The area of Novgorod was populated by various East Slavic tribes that were constantly at war with one another for supremacy. According to the 12th-century Primary Chronicle, in 859, the Varangians began to levy tribute on these tribes, who chased out the Varangians three years later. Due to their inability to govern and maintain peace, the tribes requested the return of the Varangians. In 862, the Varangian brothers Rurik, Sineus and Truvor were each "invited" to reign in Novgorod, Beloozero, and Izborsk, respectively, in what is now northwestern Russia. As a result, Novgorod is traditionally viewed as the birthplace of the Russian monarchy in Russian historiography.

From Wikipedia: Novgorod Republic · History: Origins (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Another important executive was the posadnik of Novgorod, who chaired the veche, co-chaired courts together with the prince, oversaw tax collection and managed current affairs of the city. Most of the prince's major decisions had to be approved by the posadnik. In the mid-14th century, instead of one posadnik, the veche began electing six. These six posadniki kept their status for their lifetimes, and each year elected among themselves a stepennoy posadnik. Posadniki were almost invariably boyars – the city's highest aristocracy. The precise makeup of the veche is also uncertain, although it appears to have comprised members of the urban population, as well as of the free rural population. Whether it was a democratic institution or one controlled by the boyars has been hotly debated.

From Wikipedia: Novgorod Republic · Government: Veche and posadnik (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The economy of the Novgorod Republic included farming and animal husbandry (e.g., the archbishops of Novgorod and others raised horses for the Novgorodian army), while hunting, beekeeping, and fishing were also widespread. In most of the regions of the republic, these different "industries" were combined with farming. Iron was mined on the coast of the Gulf of Finland. Staraya Russa and other localities were known for their saltworks. Flax and hop cultivation were also of significant importance. Countryside products, such as furs, beeswax, honey, fish, lard, flax, and hops, were sold on the market and exported to other Russian cities or abroad. Scholars have argued that Novgorod played a crucial role in revitalizing the Russian economy in the 14th century, especially by importing silver from the rest of Europe.

From Wikipedia: Novgorod Republic · Economy (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Like other Russian states, the military of Novgorod consisted of a levy and the prince's retinue (druzhina). While potentially all free Novgorodians could be mobilised, in reality the number of recruits depended on the level of danger faced by Novgorod. The professional formations included the retinues of the archbishop and prominent boyars, as well as the garrisons of fortresses. Firearms were first mentioned in 1394, and in the 15th century, fortress artillery was used, and cannons were installed on ships.

From Wikipedia: Novgorod Republic · Military (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Chronicles are the earliest kind of literature known to originate in Novgorod, the oldest one being the Novgorod First Chronicle. Other genres appear in the 14th and 15th centuries: travel diaries (such as the account of Stephen of Novgorod's travel to Constantinople), legends about local posadniki, saints and Novgorod's wars and victories. The events of many byliny – traditional Russian oral epic poems – take place in Novgorod. Their protagonists include a merchant and adventurer Sadko and daredevil Vasily Buslayev.

From Wikipedia: Novgorod Republic · Culture: Literature and literacy (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The first mention of the name Lithuania is found in the Annals of Quedlinburg, which describes the missionary expedition of Bruno of Querfurt to Yotvingians. In the 12th century, Slavic chronicles refer to Lithuania as one of the areas attacked by the Rus'. Pagan Lithuanians initially paid tribute to Polotsk, but they soon grew in strength and organized their own small-scale raids. At some point between 1180 and 1183 the situation began to change, and the Lithuanians started to organize sustainable military raids on the Slavic provinces, raiding the Principality of Polotsk as well as Pskov, and even threatening Novgorod. The sudden spark of military raids marked consolidation of the Lithuanian lands in Aukštaitija. The Lithuanians are the only branch within the Baltic group that managed to create a state entity in premodern times.

From Wikipedia: Grand Duchy of Lithuania · History: Establishment of the state (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The Grand Duchy's linguistic and ethnic situation, as well as the fusion of Lithuanian and Ruthenian elements in its culture, became the trigger for a long-running debate among historians from Lithuania, Belarus and Ukraine over whether the state was essentially Lithuanian or Ruthenian-Lithuanian, in which the more advanced Ruthenian culture played a central role.

From Wikipedia: Grand Duchy of Lithuania · Languages: Languages of administration (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The Army of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania was a key institution that shaped the state’s political and military power from the 13th to the 18th century. Its origins lay in early local militias formed by Lithuanian tribes, where all able-bodied men were called to defend their land. As the Grand Duchy emerged under Mindaugas, the army became more centralized, combining the forces of local dukes and their retinues (kariaunos). Throughout the 13th and 14th centuries, Lithuanian troops fought constant wars against the Teutonic and Livonian Orders, as well as against Rus’ principalities and the Golden Horde. This period saw the gradual transition from irregular tribal warfare to a structured military system, including permanent garrisons, fortifications along the Nemunas River, and organized cavalry units.

From Wikipedia: Grand Duchy of Lithuania · Military (CC BY-SA 4.0)

After the baptism in 1252 and coronation of King Mindaugas in 1253, Lithuania was recognized as a Christian state until 1260, when Mindaugas supported an uprising in Courland and (according to the German order) renounced Christianity. Up until 1387, Lithuanian nobles professed their own religion, which was polytheistic. Ethnic Lithuanians were very dedicated to their faith. The pagan beliefs needed to be deeply entrenched to survive strong pressure from missionaries and foreign powers. Until the 17th century, there were relics of old faith reported by counter-reformation active Jesuit priests, like feeding žaltys with milk or bringing food to graves of ancestors. The lands of modern-day Belarus and Ukraine, as well as local dukes (princes) in these regions, were firmly Orthodox Christian (Greek Catholic after the Union of Brest), though.

From Wikipedia: Grand Duchy of Lithuania · Religion and culture: Christianity and paganism (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Prussian tribes (of Baltic origin) were the subject of Polish expansion, which was largely unsuccessful, so Duke Konrad of Masovia invited the Teutonic Knights to settle near the Prussian area of settlement. The fighting between Prussians and the Teutonic Knights gave the more distant Lithuanian tribes time to unite. Because of strong enemies in the south and north, the newly formed Lithuanian state concentrated most of its military and diplomatic efforts on expansion eastward.

From Wikipedia: Grand Duchy of Lithuania · Legacy (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Following the establishment of the Novgorod Republic in northern Rus' during the 12th century, the city of Pskov and its dependent territory became part of the Novgorod Republic, but it continued to enjoy self-government under the supervision of a posadnik, or chief executive, that was appointed by Novgorod. Pskov had the status of a borough (Russian: пригород, romanized: prigorod), but was given the unique right to have boroughs of its own, with Izborsk being the most ancient among them. The first period of self-declared independence lasted from 1228 to 1242, ending when the city was temporarily annexed by the Livonian Order. After being liberated by Aleksandr Nevsky, the city pledged its fealty to the grand prince and Novgorod. Due to Pskov's leading role in the struggle against the Livonian Order, its influence grew significantly.

From Wikipedia: Pskov Republic · History: Origins (CC BY-SA 4.0)

In contrast to the absolute power of princes in the structure of the Russian principalities, the republics of Novgorod and Pskov had structures that counterbalanced and complemented each other. The government of the Pskov Republic consisted of the veche (popular assembly), posadnichestvo (mayoralty) and the prince (directly or through a viceroy). Mayors (posadniki) from all parts of the city, together with one or more lord mayors and former mayors formed the Council of Lords (sovet gospod, boyarskiy sovet), which was the main executive organ of the state. The mayoral offices (posadniki) became a privilege of several noble (boyar) families. The first references to posadniki appear in the chronicle of Pskov in the early 14th century. Former posadniki kept their title, and so the incumbent posadnik was known as the stepennyi posadnik.

From Wikipedia: Pskov Republic · Politics: Government (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Pskov, along with Novgorod, was an important center of trade between Russia and Western Europe as it was one of the westernmost Russian cities. The main export was wax. The first mention of the Pskov wax trade was in the 1342 treaty between Novgorod and German merchants. Because Pskov did not have a vast hinterland, unlike Novgorod, fur was never a significant export. In 1448, Novgorod and Pskov signed a treaty with the cities of Livonia as equal partners for the first time.

From Wikipedia: Pskov Republic · Trade and economy (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The literature of Pskov land was an integral part of medieval Russian literature. The chronicle-writing started in the 13th century, at first dealing mostly with topics of local interest. By the 15th century, the chronicles became more detailed and described events in Moscow, Novgorod, Lithuania and the Golden Horde. The most important works written in Pskov are the Story of Dovmont describing the coming of Dovmont to the city, his baptism and subsequent victories, The Life of Saint Euphrosynus and The Address of Hegumen Pamfil which contains one of the earliest descriptions of Ivan Kupala rituals.

From Wikipedia: Pskov Republic · Culture: Literature (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The Principality of Volhynia may have emerged as early as the late 10th century, with Vsevolod, a son of Vladimir I of Kiev, mentioned as a prince of the city of Volodymyr. Igor Yaroslavich reportedly briefly reigned as the prince of Volodymyr in the 1050s. Iaroslav Sviatopolkovich (r. 1100–1118) was the only prince in Kievan Rus' to oppose Vladimir II Monomakh's reign on the grounds of agnatic seniority, but after Vladimir ousted him in 1118, his Monomakhovichi descendants established a local dynastic branch. Roman Mstislavich, the great-great-grandson of Monomakh, inherited the throne of Volhynia in 1170.

From Wikipedia: Kingdom of Galicia–Volhynia · History: Origins (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Both Volhynia and Galicia had experienced a remarkable economic development in the 12th century due to their commercial advantages. In part, this was because land trade routes in Asia Minor were severely disrupted due to the Byzantine–Seljuk wars (1046–1243), diverting numerous merchants coming from the east heading for Constantinople via Alexandria in Egypt, while others circumvented Anatolia via the port of Sudak (Sougdaia) in Crimea. The flourishing of the latter commercial hub soon attracted Kievan Rus' traders, who rerouted some of the would-be Byzantine goods (occasionally through itinerant Jewish merchants) to Poland, Hungary, Bohemia and Germany, via the towns of Volhynia and Galicia.

From Wikipedia: Kingdom of Galicia–Volhynia · Economy and culture: Commerce (CC BY-SA 4.0)

In 1205, Roman's alliance with the Poles broke down, leading to a conflict with Leszek the White and Konrad of Masovia. Roman was subsequently killed by Polish forces in the Battle of Zawichost (1205), triggering a war of succession, while his dominion entered a period of rebellion and chaos that lasted almost 40 years. In this time, the Galician boyars made efforts to prevent the establishment of a hereditary princely dynasty, especially by Roman's son Daniel, and instead put all sorts of puppets on the throne which they could easily control. Thus weakened by war between Galician boyars and some appanage princes, Galicia–Volhynia also became an arena of rivalry between Poland and Hungary, which intervened in the region several times. Roman's successors would mostly use Halych (Galicia) as the designation of their combined kingdom.

From Wikipedia: Kingdom of Galicia–Volhynia · History: War of the Galician Succession (1205–1245) (CC BY-SA 4.0)

By the 12th century, construction of new buildings was taking place at a faster rate in the emerging urban centres of Galicia–Volynia (as well as in Smolensk and Suzdalia) than in the older centres of princely power of Kiev, Chernigov, and Pereyaslavl. Galicia–Volynia and the Novgorod Republic were also prominent examples of regions that began to establish their own Rus' chronicle traditions, still starting with the Primary Chronicle (PVL), but increasingly focusing on their own lands rather than the wider Kievan Rus' realm. The Kievan Chronicle was supplemented by the Galician–Volhynian Chronicle (GVC), and as such copied, redistributed, and preserved in codices such as the Hypatian Codex and the Khlebnikov Codex.

From Wikipedia: Kingdom of Galicia–Volhynia · Economy and culture: Architecture and literature (CC BY-SA 4.0)

In winter 1341 Tatars, Ruthenians led by Detko, and Lithuanians led by Liubartas were able to defeat the Poles, although they were not so successful in summer 1341. Finally, Detko was forced to accept Polish overlordship, as a starost of Galicia. After Detko's death, Casimir III mounted a successful invasion, capturing and annexing Galicia in 1349.The Romanovichi (branch of the Rurikid) dynasty of Daniel of Galicia attempted to gain support from Pope Benedict XII and broader European powers for an alliance against the Mongols, but ultimately proved unable to compete with the rising powers of the centralised Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Kingdom of Poland. Only in 1349, after the occupation of Galicia–Volhynia by an allied Polish-Hungarian force, was Galicia–Volhynia finally conquered and incorporated into Poland.

From Wikipedia: Kingdom of Galicia–Volhynia · History: Final years and partition between Poland and Lithuania (1341–1392) (CC BY-SA 4.0)

From 1991 to 2009, the mayor of the city was elected by the townspeople for a term of 5 years. During this time, four people have been in this post: Dmitry Bednyakov, Ivan Sklyarov, Yuri Lebedev, Vadim Bulavinov (twice).

From Wikipedia: Nizhny Novgorod · Government and politics: Politics (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Since the reign of Emperor Alexander III, Nizhny Novgorod has become the centre of all-Russian merchants. On 15 July 1822 the largest Nizhny Novgorod fair was solemnly opened on the left bank of the Oka. Then Nizhny Novgorod became the main city of all-Russian and international trade. In 1929, the Fair was closed, and the city's economy began to develop in a completely different direction.

From Wikipedia: Nizhny Novgorod · Economy (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The art gallery in Nizhny Novgorod is a large and important art gallery and museums of human history and culture.

From Wikipedia: Nizhny Novgorod · Main sights: Nizhny Novgorod art gallery (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The chronicle suggests a high importance to Beloozero as it was the residence of Rurik's brother, yet the town did not develop into a major political center, however, it became a frequent port of call. Even though Beloozero was a small rural settlement, Scandinavian items such as combs have been excavated there, suggesting extensive trade networks. Furthermore, 10th-century fragments found in Beloozero suggest imports from the southern regions to the town. Kievan glassware was traded in Beloozero, indicating trade contacts between the towns.

From Wikipedia: Principality of Beloozero · Economy (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The Tver City Duma, the local parliament, is composed of 33 deputies. The executive branch is the Administration of Tver. The structure consists of the mayor (since 2017 – Alexey Ogonkov), his deputies, industry bodies (departments of architecture and construction, housing and communal services, health and social policy, property management and land resources; economy, investment and industrial policy, a number of departments and divisions), as well as the administration of the four districts: Zavolzhsky, Moskovsky, Proletarsky and Tsentralny. A considerable part of the government buildings of the city of Tver and the Tver Oblast lay along Sovetskaya Street: the building on the square of St. Michael (Sovetskaya, 44) is the residence of the Governor of the Oblast, and a former Regional Party Committee (Sovetskaya, 33) is The Legislative Assembly of Tver Oblast.

From Wikipedia: Tver · Politics (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Tver's most notable industries are rolling stock manufacturer Tver Carriage Works, opened in 1898, an excavator factory, and a glass factory. Tver is home to Migalovo, which is one of Russia's biggest military airlift facilities.

From Wikipedia: Tver · Economy (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Tver is home to Tver State University, the highest rated university in the region. It is also home to the Tver State technical university, medical university, agricultural academy, and more than twenty colleges and lyceums, branch campuses of some Moscow higher educational institutions and more than fifty high schools.

From Wikipedia: Tver · Education (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The Blue Horde remained strong from its foundation (around 1240) until the 1350s. Problems in the west of the horde led to the eventual losses of Wallachia, Dobruja, Moldavia and the western Ukraine and the vassal principalities west of Kiev, losing those lands to Lithuania after being defeated by its army in the Battle of Blue Waters in 1362, and Poland. The death of Jani Beg led to the Blue Horde entering into a prolonged civil war, with concurrent khans fighting each other and holding no real power. At the same time, Mamai turned kingmaker in the Blue Horde. During this time, Vasily I of Moscow took advantage of the infighting and stopped paying tribute to the Horde, though the Horde still carried out some attacks on Moscow such as a raid in 1408.

From Wikipedia: Blue Horde · Fall (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The rule of Piasts, the earlier Polish ruling house (c. 962–1370) had ended with the death of King Casimir III the Great. Gediminids, the immediate predecessors of the first Jagiellonian, were rulers of medieval Lithuania with the title of Grand Duke. Their realm, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, was chiefly inhabited by Lithuanians and Ruthenians.

From Wikipedia: Jagiellonian dynasty · Pre-dynasty background (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The influence of the Jagiellonian dynasty in Central Europe had been on the rise. In 1471 Casimir's son Vladislaus II became a king of Bohemia, and in 1490 also of Hungary. The southern and eastern outskirts of Poland and Lithuania became threatened by Turkish invasions beginning in the late 15th century. Moldavia's involvement with Poland goes back to 1387, when Peter I, Hospodar of Moldavia, seeking protection against the Hungarians, paid Jagiełło homage in Lviv, which gave Poland access to the Black Sea ports. In 1485 King Casimir undertook an expedition into Moldavia, after its seaports were overtaken by the Ottoman Turks. The Turkish controlled Crimean Tatars raided the eastern territories in 1482 and 1487, until they were confronted by King John Albert, Casimir's son and successor. Poland was attacked in 1487–1491 by remnants of the Golden Horde.

From Wikipedia: Jagiellonian dynasty · Kingdom of Poland: Turkish and Tatar wars (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The Polish "Golden Age", the period of the reigns of Sigismund I and Sigismund II, the last two Jagiellonian kings, or more generally the 16th century, is most often identified with the rise of the culture of Polish Renaissance. The cultural flowering had its material base in the prosperity of the elites, both the landed nobility and urban patriciate at such centers as Kraków and Gdańsk. As was the case with other European nations, the Renaissance inspiration came in the first place from Italy, a process accelerated to some degree by the marriage of Sigismund I to Bona Sforza. Many Poles traveled to Italy to study and to learn its culture. As imitating Italian ways became very trendy (the royal courts of the two kings provided the leadership and example for everybody else), many Italian artists and thinkers were coming to Poland, some settling and working there for many years.

From Wikipedia: Jagiellonian dynasty · Kingdom of Poland: Golden Age of Polish culture (CC BY-SA 4.0)

During the reign of Ulugh Muhammad and his son Maxmud, Kazan forces raided Muscovy and its subject lands several times. In 1445 Maxmud and his brother Yakub defeated the army of Vasily II of Moscow near Suzdal and captured him. Vasily agreed to pay a large ransom and an annual tribute.

From Wikipedia: Khanate of Kazan · History: Early history (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The territory of the khanate comprised the Muslim Bulgar-populated lands of the Bolğar, Cükätäw, Kazan, and Qaşan duchies and other regions that originally belonged to Volga Bulgaria. The Volga, Kama, and Vyatka were the main rivers of the khanate, as well as the major trade routes. The size of the Tatar population is disputed. The Chuvash encyclopedia describes the Tatars as a minority that formed the ruling class, and gives the tribute-paying Chuvash, about 200,000 people, as the largest group. Most of the population identified itself by religion, as Muslims, and people also called themselves "the people of Kazan" (qazanlılar). Sunni Islam of the Hanafi school was the state religion.

From Wikipedia: Khanate of Kazan · Geography and population (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The urban population worked in crafts, including pottery, woodworking, leatherworking, ironworking, arms-making, weaving, and jewelry. The main towns included Qazan, Alabuğa, Arça, Bolğar, Cükätaw, Qaşan, İske Qazan, Çallı, Alat, Cöri, and Täteş. The khanate traded locally with the upper Kama region and the southern Urals, and internationally with Russia, Central Asia, and the Caucasus. Its main exports were furs, leather goods, honey, and grain; its imports included luxury goods, expensive weapons, textiles, and spices. Slaves were also exported. The khanate minted no coins of its own and mainly used Russian coins. In spring 1525, at Russian insistence, Safa Giray agreed to move the trade fair from Kazan to Nizhny Novgorod.

From Wikipedia: Khanate of Kazan · Economics (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The khanate was divided into large districts, the daruğas. Sources differ on their number. The 2008 Great Russian Encyclopedia lists five: Alat, Arça, Gäreç (Galich), Cöri, and Nuğay, the last created in the 1540s–1550s. The Tatar encyclopedia gives four at first, with the Nogai daruğa added later, and the Chuvash encyclopedia gives six or seven, each governed by an emir. Some feudal lords asserted independence from Kazan at times, but such attempts were suppressed.

From Wikipedia: Khanate of Kazan · Administration and military (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Khudyakov described the khanate as formed from two elements: an older Bulgar base, with its population and culture, and a Tatar element that brought the state organization. Cultural elements of the Golden Horde were also present among the nobility.

From Wikipedia: Khanate of Kazan · Culture (CC BY-SA 4.0)

In 1552, forces of Ivan the Terrible, operating from the Russian fortress of Sviyazhsk, built in 1551, laid siege to Kazan. The Russians defeated the Tatar inland troops and burnt Archa and some castles. After a siege of more than 40 days, the Russians blew up the walls near the Atalyk and Nogai gates and stormed the city on 2 October 1552 (Old Style; 12 October New Style). Yadegar Mokhammad was captured and taken to Moscow. Some defenders escaped, but most were killed, and the population was massacred.

From Wikipedia: Khanate of Kazan · History: Downfall (CC BY-SA 4.0)