Early Modern States of West Africa: Map & History

The kurma, where the Balama, the minister of defence of the empire and general-in-chief of the armies in charge of military surveillance of the western provinces, including Mali, was based. The western garrisons were stationed there, and the Balama resided with part of the naval fleet in the port of Kabara. The other important personality was the Kurma Fari, who acted as governor and lived in Timbuktu, the provincial capital.

From Wikipedia: Songhai Empire · Organization (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The Songhai armed forces included a navy led by a hikoy (admiral), a cavalry of mounted archers, an infantry, and a camel cavalry. They trained herds of long-horned bulls in the imperial stables to charge at the enemy in battle. Vultures were also used to harass opposing camps.

From Wikipedia: Songhai Empire · Military (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Overland trade in the Sahel and river trade along the Niger were the primary sources of Songhai wealth. Trade along the West African coast was only possible in the late 1400s. Several dikes were constructed during the reign of Sonni Ali, which enhanced the irrigation and agricultural yield of the empire.

From Wikipedia: Songhai Empire · Culture: Economy (CC BY-SA 4.0)

In 1528, Askia's children revolted against him, declaring his son Askia Musa king. Following Musa's overthrow in 1531, the Songhai Empire went into decline. Following the death of Emperor Askia Daoud in 1583, a war of succession weakened the Songhai Empire and split it into two feuding factions.

From Wikipedia: Songhai Empire · History: Decline and Saadian Invasion (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The legendary origins of the Oyo Empire lie with Ọranyan (also known as Ọranmiyan), the last prince of the Yoruba Kingdom of Ile-Ife (Ife). According to oral traditions, Ọranmiyan made an agreement with his brother to launch a punitive raid on their northern neighbors for insulting their father Oduduwa, the first Ooni of Ife. On the way to the battle, the brothers quarreled and the army split up. Oranmiyan's force was too small to make a successful attack, so he wandered the southern shore of the Niger River until reaching Bussa. There, the local chief entertained him and provided a large snake with a magic charm attached to its throat.

From Wikipedia: Oyo Empire · History: Legend of origin (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The Oyo Mesi were the seven principal councilors of the state. They constituted the Electoral Council and possessed legislative powers. Led by the Bashorun, acting as prime minister, and consisting of the Agbaakin, the Samu, the Alapini, the Laguna, the Akiniku, and the Ashipa, they represented the voice of the nation and had the chief responsibility of protecting the interests of the empire. The Alaafin was required to take counsel from them whenever any important matter affecting the state occurred. Each chief had a state duty to perform at court every morning and afternoon. Each also had a deputy whom they would send to the Alaafin if their absence was unavoidable. The Oyo Mesi developed as a check on the Alaafin's power, preventing the Alaafin from being an autocrat; they compelled many Alaafins to commit suicide during the 17th and 18th centuries.

From Wikipedia: Oyo Empire · Political structure: Oyo Mesi (CC BY-SA 4.0)

In the late eighteenth century, Oyo came to rely too much on the trading of slaves with Europeans, so that when the trade was outlawed, Oyo suffered a loss of revenue and authority. This allowed many tributary states, such as Dahomey, to rebel and exert their own independence, at Oyo's expense. Oyo also became a target of the Fulani Jihad of 1804, which established the Sokoto Caliphate and caused frequent clashes with Oyo. This caused the Oyo Empire to fall into chaos and suffer a massive loss in territory, power, and influence. As a result, Yoruba people fell victim to the slave raids of neighbouring states, like Dahomey and Sokoto. This caused a wave of Yoruba captives to enter the Atlantic Slave Trade during the first half of the nineteenth century.

From Wikipedia: Oyo Empire · History: Atlantic Slave Trade (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The Oyo Empire was one of the only Yoruba states to adopt cavalry; it did so because most of its territory was in the northern savannah. The origin of the cavalry is unclear; however, the Nupe, Borgu and Hausa in neighbouring territories also used cavalry and may have had the same historical source. Oyo was able to purchase horses from the north and maintain them in metropolitan Oyo because of partial freedom from the tsetse fly. Cavalry was the long arm of the Oyo Empire. Late 16th and 17th century expeditions were composed entirely of cavalry. There were drawbacks to this. Oyo could not maintain its cavalry army in the south but could raid at will. Despite its drawbacks, Oyo Empire amassed a cavalry force exceeding 100,000 horsemen, with a contingent of that size reportedly mobilized specifically for campaigns against the Kingdom of Dahomey.

From Wikipedia: Oyo Empire · Military: Cavalry (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The architecture within the Oyo Empire, exhibited an intricate built environment. Elite residences in Oyo-Ile showcased a distinctive architectural style, highlighted by intricate sculptures that symbolized the status of the inhabitants. Sculptors adorned houses and compounds with finely carved wooden posts and bas-relief doors, often depicting narratives of significant events, asserting power, and immortalizing the experiences of the residents. However, the most intricate and elaborate architectural artworks were reserved for the temples dedicated to the deities. An exceptional example is the temple of Sango. The structure, perfectly square and approximately twenty yards on each side, featured polished, deep-red stained floors and walls. Hugh Clapperton called it "The largest and most fancifully ornamented of any of a similar kind in the interior of Africa."

From Wikipedia: Oyo Empire · Culture: Architecture (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Many believe the decline of the Oyo empire had started as early as 1754 with the dynastic intrigues and palace coups sponsored by the Oyo Prime Minister Gaha. In his quest for absolute power, Gaha conspired with the Oyo Mesi and probably to some extent the Ogboni to force four successive Alaafins to commit ritual suicide after they had been presented with the symbolic parrot's eggs. Between June and October 1754 alone, two Alaafins had been forced to commit suicide by Gaha. Because of this, Alaafin Awonbioju spent 130 days on the throne, while Alaafin Labisi only spent 17 days on the throne. Gaha's treachery was not ended until 1774 during the reign of Alaafin Abiodun, the fifth Alaafin he served. Gaha was subsequently executed by Abiodun but the instability that had been brought about by these intrigues had further weakened Oyo.

From Wikipedia: Oyo Empire · History: Decline (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Prior to the 1630s, the region was ruled by the Tunjur kingdom, established around the 15th century. Tunjur oral traditions say that the founder of the Tunjur kingdom in Darfur, Ahmad al-Ma'qur, had two sons called Ahmad Kanjar and Musa; Kanjar accordingly succeeded his father in Darfur and was the founder of the Kunjaara dynasty, while Musa went to Wadai and subjugated the region with the assistance of the Mahamid Arabs. McGregor wrote that many of the early heroes in tradition were later Islamised to strengthen the ruling dynasty's legitimacy.

From Wikipedia: Wadai Sultanate · History: Origins (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Under Abd al-Karim Sabun in the early 19th century, Wadai forces were equipped with chain mail and firearms. In the 1840s–50s, Wadai possessed 300 guns. The figure went upwards to 4000 flintlock muskets by the 1870s. Sultan Ali (1858–1874) hired Turkish and Egyptian mechanics to cast 12 bronze and small caliber cannons. These cannons lacked carriages and Gustav Nachtigal concluded in the 19th century that they were ineffective.

From Wikipedia: Wadai Sultanate · Military (CC BY-SA 4.0)

In 1898, Ali Dinar re-established the Darfur Sultanate at the same time as Sultan Yusuf's death, allowing him to interfere in the succession dispute. Darfur's candidate, Ahmad al-Ghazali, was crowned. Al-Ghazali was assassinated and replaced by the Senussi's candidate, Muhammad Salih (Yusuf's son), known as "Dud Murra" ("the lion of Murra"). He repaid the Senussi by allowing their merchants to trade freely. Rabih az-Zubayr conducted raids into Wadai. In 1906, the French initiated aggressive hostilities against Wadai, proposing Adam Asil as their puppet candidate. France invaded, and in 1909 they took Abéché. Dud Murra escaped to Kapka under the Senussi and Asil was made sultan. The French went on to conquer Wadai's vassals. Dud Murra continued to fight the French until his final defeat in 1910.

From Wikipedia: Wadai Sultanate · History: Decline (CC BY-SA 4.0)

After the liquidation of the WIC in 1791, the Council of Colonies for the West Indies took over the government of the Dutch Gold Coast. Little changed in the first years, and the old administration of the WIC was left largely intact.

From Wikipedia: Dutch Gold Coast · Administration: Direct Dutch rule (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Although the colony is nowadays primarily associated with Atlantic slave trade, this was not the reason for the first Dutch traders to trade with the Gold Coast. Barent Eriksz made a profit trading gold, ivory, and West African pepper, and these products remained the primary trading goods in the early 17th century. According to Joannes de Laet, the WIC had transported West African goods worth 14 million Dutch guilders to the Dutch Republic by 1637, of which the most important was the trade in gold.

From Wikipedia: Dutch Gold Coast · Economy (CC BY-SA 4.0)

In the remainder of the 19th century, the Dutch Gold Coast slowly fell into disarray. The only substantial development during this period was the recruitment of soldiers for the Dutch East Indies Army. This recruitment of the so-called Belanda Hitam (Indonesian for "Black Dutchmen") started in 1831 as an emergency measure as the Dutch army lost thousands of European soldiers and a much larger number of "native" soldiers in the Java War (1825–1830), and at the same time saw its own population base diminished by the independence of Belgium (1830). As the Dutch wanted the number of natives in the Dutch East Indies Army to be limited to roughly half the total strength to maintain the loyalty of native forces, the addition of forces from the Gold Coast seemed an ideal opportunity to keep the army at strength and loyal at the same time.

From Wikipedia: Dutch Gold Coast · History: Recruitment of soldiers for the Dutch East Indies Army (CC BY-SA 4.0)

After the Dutch East Indies gained independence as Indonesia in 1949, most Belanda Hitam migrated to the Netherlands, since they had been soldiers of the Royal Netherlands East Indies Army. Other than that, the Dutch colonial history on the Gold Coast was more or less forgotten. This changed slightly after Arthur Japin published the earlier mentioned The Two Hearts of Kwasi Boachi in 1997. This attention also revealed that the head of Ahanta king Badu Bonsu II, taken to the Netherlands after his execution in 1838, was still in the possession of the Leiden University Medical Centre. The head of the king was handed over to the Ghanaian ambassador in a ceremony held on 23 July 2009 in The Hague.

From Wikipedia: Dutch Gold Coast · Legacy (CC BY-SA 4.0)

An opportunity to for the Danes to establish themselves on the Gold Coast and eject the Swedes appeared in the person of Hendrik Carloff, a former employee of the Swedish Africa Company. After being accused by the Swedes of conducting unauthorized private commerce and weakened by the death of his patron Louis de Geer resigned from Swedish service in 1656 and left the country. When hostilities erupted between Denmark and Sweden, he turned to the Danish crown and, in August 1657, obtained a letter of marque empowering him to capture Fort Carlsborg and attack Swedish interests in Guinea at his own cost.

From Wikipedia: Danish Gold Coast · History: Early years (1658-1665) (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The Danes were involved in the slave trade from the mid-17th century until the early 19th century. The Royal Danish Navy and its mercantile marine were recorded as the fourth largest in Europe in this period. With the establishment of the Gold Coast colony in the 1660s, commodities such as gold and ivory dominated at first, but by the turn of the 18th century, slaves were the most important commodity in the Danish trade. Those who commanded the large slave ships were often instructed to convert their cabin into a kind of moveable showroom upon arrival on the African coast. While throughout the 18th century, Danish exports of enslaved Africans accounted for about 5 percent of the total exports from the Gold Coast, by the 1780s, this was up to 10 percent.

From Wikipedia: Danish Gold Coast · History: Danish slave trade (CC BY-SA 4.0)

In Akan oral tradition, Adanse is the place where Odomankoma (God) began the creation of the word. It is also associated with the beginnings of Akan kingship and the abusua (clan) system. Adansemanso, the first capital of Adanse, was continuously occupied from the 9th century CE, with earlier settlement dating to 393 CE. Excavations revealed that the town reached its largest size between the 13th and 15th centuries.

From Wikipedia: Asante Empire · History: Adanse and the formation of Akan states (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Okomfo Anokye was responsible for creating the Seventy-Seven Laws of Komfo Anokye which served as the codified constitution of the Ashanti Empire.

From Wikipedia: Asante Empire · Legal system (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Infrastructure throughout the empire included a network of well-kept roads from the Asante mainland to the Niger river and other trade cities. Stationed at various points of Asante roads were the Nkwansrafo or road wardens who served as the highway police; checking the movement of traders and strangers on all roads. They were also responsible for scouting and were charged with the collection of tolls from traders.

From Wikipedia: Asante Empire · Economy: Infrastructure (CC BY-SA 4.0)

In 1721 and 1722, Asante decided to attack Aowin, Nzima and Wassa in order to secure the western trade routes. During the campaigns, the Asante fought many battles against Aowin and Nzima, which ended in their total defeat. The Dutch reported that “the gold rich Awinse suffered its greatest defeat,” and that large numbers of Aowin prisoners were sold as slaves at Elmina, Cape Coast and Anomabo. John Atkins, a British naval officer on the Nzima coast at the time, recorded that he personally met the Queen of Nzima and her followers who had fled their country at Assini. After defeating Aowin and Nzima, the Asante intended to extend the campaign into Wassa territory, but hostilities were temporarily halted because Tekyiman threatened an invasion of Asante. In 1722, Bono was conquered by subterfuge using Bafo Pim and the Nkoronzas.

From Wikipedia: Asante Empire · History: War against Aowin, Nzima, Wassa, Bono, Gyaman, Gonja, Krakye and Dagomba (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Slavery was practiced in the Asante Empire, with slaves typically taken as captives from enemies in warfare. The Asante Empire was the largest slaveowning and slave trading state in the territory of today's Ghana during the Atlantic slave trade. The welfare of their slaves varied from being able to acquire wealth and intermarry with the master's family to being sacrificed in funeral ceremonies. The Asante believed that slaves would follow their masters into the afterlife. Slaves could sometimes own other slaves, and could also request a new master if the slave believed he or she was being severely mistreated.

From Wikipedia: Asante Empire · Culture and society: Slavery (CC BY-SA 4.0)

After suppressing Denkyira resistance, Asante turned its attention to the west in order to secure control of the trade routes linking the forest states with the northern markets and the coast. Wenchi and neighboring states occupied important positions along routes leading toward Nsoko (Begho). Ahwene Koko was the capital of the Wenchi state and became a target during these campaigns. According to Wenchi traditions, Osei Tutu attacked Ahwene Koko in order to obtain the “precious Ahenedwa (red bead stool)” of the Wenchi ruler. Wenchi was a wealthy trading state and the polity benefited from access to kola and alluvial gold and was also known for its cloth industry. A Dutch map of 1629 described Wenchi as producing “artistically beautiful cloths which the inhabitants sell to the Akani.”

From Wikipedia: Asante Empire · History: The fall of Wenchi and war with Aowin (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The Segou Empire was structured around traditional Bambara institutions. The most important of these was the ton, or age-group. They were in theory completely egalitarian and elected their own leaders. Through charisma and ruthless power politics, however, Biton converted this into essentially an army made up of forobadjon (nominally, slaves of the community) led by tondjons, or slaves of the ton but who were in practice a military aristocracy. Any faama strong enough to control the tondjons was in effect an absolute monarch, doling out state property as rewards for bravery. A 40-man council of state swore allegiance and obedience to him and served as a rubber stamp. Relatives were given key posts, and the faama was the head priest of powerful and important religious cults.

From Wikipedia: Ségou Empire · Government (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The economy of the Segou Empire flourished through trade, especially that of the slaves captured in their many wars. One category of slave, the jonfin, could be sold; another, the jonba were put to work by the state either as laborers or as soldiers in the ton djon. The demand for slaves then led to further fighting, leaving the Bambara in a perpetual state of war with their neighbors, and slaves from the area formed the majority of those sold to European traders at the Senegal River and Gambia River trading posts.

From Wikipedia: Ségou Empire · Economy (CC BY-SA 4.0)

At the Battle of Noukouma in 1818, Bambara forces met and were defeated by Fula Muslim fighters rallied by the jihad of Cheikou Amadu (or Seku Amadu) of Massina. The Segou Empire survived but was irreversibly weakened. Seku Amadu's forces decisively defeated the Bambara, taking Djenné and much of the territory around Mopti and forming into a Massina Empire. Timbuktu would fall as well in 1845.

From Wikipedia: Ségou Empire · History: Jihad and fall (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The city of Freetown is one of Sierra Leone's six municipalities and is governed by a directly elected city council, headed by a mayor, in whom executive authority is vested. The current mayor is Yvonne Aki-Sawyerr. The mayor is responsible for the general management of the city. The mayor and members of the Freetown City Council are elected directly by the residents of Freetown every four years.

From Wikipedia: Freetown · Government (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Freetown is the economic and financial centre of Sierra Leone. The country's state television and radio station, the Sierra Leone Broadcasting Corporation, is primarily based in Freetown. The other national broadcasters, such as AYV (African Young Voices) and Capital Radio, are also based in Freetown. Many of the national headquarters of the country's largest corporations, as well as the majority of international companies, are located in Freetown - predominately in Central Freetown.

From Wikipedia: Freetown · Economy (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The city was the scene of fierce fighting in the late 1990s during the Sierra Leone Civil War. It was captured by ECOWAS troops seeking to restore President Ahmad Tejan Kabbah in 1998. Later it was unsuccessfully attacked by rebels of the Revolutionary United Front.

From Wikipedia: Freetown · History: Civil war, 1990s to early 2000s (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The city has the Sierra Leone National Museum and Sierra Leone National Railway Museum. There are also various historical landmarks connected to its founding by African Americans, Liberated Africans, and Afro-Caribbeans whose descendants are the Sierra Leone Creole people. The Cotton Tree represents the christening of Freetown in March 1792. In downtown Freetown is the Connaught Hospital, the first hospital constructed in West Africa that incorporated Western medical practices.

From Wikipedia: Freetown · Culture (CC BY-SA 4.0)