Medieval States of East Africa and the Horn: Map & History

After the fall of the Kingdom of Aksum in the 10th century AD, the Ethiopian Highlands would fall under the rule of the Zagwe Dynasty. The new rulers were Agaws that had come from the Lasta region, later ecclesiastical texts accused this dynasty of not having pure "Solomonic" stock and derided their achievements. Even at the zenith of their power, most Christians would consider them to be usurpers. However, the architecture of the Zagwe shows a connotation of earlier Aksumite traditions, among those can be seen in Lalibela, the building of rock hewn churches first appeared in the late Aksumite era and reached its peak under the Zagwe.

From Wikipedia: Ethiopian Empire · History: Background (CC BY-SA 4.0)

As feudalism became the central tenet in the Ethiopian Empire, it developed into an authoritarian system with institutionalized social inequality. As land became the prime commodity, its acquisition became the main driving force behind imperialism, especially from the reign of Menelik II onwards.

From Wikipedia: Ethiopian Empire · Government (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The economy consisted of centuries old barter system with "primitive money" and currency of various kinds until the 20th century in the framework of feudal system. Peasants worked to produce and fixated their activities to taxation, marketing infrastructure and agrarian production. One form of currency was gold cubes. Excavations near Mount Yerer, by Lanfranco Ricci and Fattovich uncovered 5.5 mm gold cubes weighing 3.2 grams each, dated to medieval period. Lacking jewelry features, these cubes likely standardized gold value for trade, with some possibly bearing marks indicating official currency status. In 1699, gold wedges in Gondar, potentially over 10 grams were used as currency according to the French traveler Charles Poncet.

From Wikipedia: Ethiopian Empire · Economy (CC BY-SA 4.0)

On 27 August 1942, Haile Selassie abolished the legal basis of slavery throughout the empire and imposed severe penalties, including death, for slave trading. After World War II, Ethiopia became a charter member of the United Nations. In 1948, the Ogaden, a region disputed with Somalia, was granted to Ethiopia. On 2 December 1950, the UN General Assembly adopted Resolution 390 (V), establishing the federation of Eritrea (the former Italian colony) into Ethiopia. Eritrea was to have its own constitution, which would provide for ethnic, linguistic, and cultural balance, while Ethiopia was to manage its finances, defense, and foreign policy.

From Wikipedia: Ethiopian Empire · History: Post war Ethiopia (CC BY-SA 4.0)

From the 7th to the 13th century, a time marked by political instability, little new literary work was produced. However, with the establishment of the Solomonic dynasty in 1270, Geʿez literature entered its most productive period. The early period was dominated by translation, as many of the original texts had earlier been written in Coptic, Syriac, or Greek; such texts include Gadla Sama'tat or the Bandlet of Righteousness. A number of works were translated from Arabic into Ge'ez for the first time, including the Chronicle of John of Nikiu and the Universal History of Jirjis ibn al'Amid Abi'l-Wasir (also known as al-Makin). Most works focused on theology or were heavily influenced by religious themes. One of the most notable texts of this period is the 14th-century Kebra Nagast ("Glory of the Kings"), a work that blends mythical history, allegory, and apocalyptic writing.

From Wikipedia: Ethiopian Empire · Literature (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The government's failure to adequately respond to the 1973 Wollo famine, the growing discontent of urban interest groups, and high fuel prices due to the 1973 oil crisis led to a revolt in February 1974 by the army and civilian populace. In June, a group of military officers formed the Coordinating Committee of the Armed Forces, Police, and Territorial Army also known as the Derg to maintain law and order due to the powerlessness of the civilian government following the widespread mutiny.

From Wikipedia: Ethiopian Empire · History: Fall of monarchy (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Islam was introduced to the Horn region early on from the Arabian Peninsula, shortly after the hijra. Zeila's two-mihrab mosque Masjid al-Qiblatayn dates to about the 7th century, and is one of the oldest mosques in Africa. In the late 9th century, Al-Yaqubi wrote that Muslims were living along the northern Somali seaboard. Zeila transformed into a thriving and independent port city and a key center for early Muslim polities in the Horn of Africa. The Arab geographer Al-Ya'qubi offers the earliest clear reference portraying it as a vibrant, self-governing trading hub on the Somali coast. Merchants exported valuable commodities to Red Sea markets in Yemen and Egypt. Its prime location in the vicinity of the Bab al-Mandab Strait positioned it as a crucial node in transcontinental trade networks, attracting diverse populations.

From Wikipedia: Sultanate of Ifat · Founding of Ifat (CC BY-SA 4.0)

In 1320 a conflict between the Christian monarch and Muslim Ifat leaders began. The conflict was precipitated by Al-Nasir Muhammad of Egypt. The Mamluk ruler Al-Nasir Muhammad was persecuting Christian Copts and destroying Coptic churches. The Ethiopian Emperor Amda Seyon I sent an envoy with a warning to the Mamluk ruler that if he did not stop the persecution of Christians in Egypt, he would retaliate against Muslims under his rule and would starve the peoples of Egypt by diverting the course of the Nile. According to Pankhurst, of the two threats, the diversion of Nile was an idle threat and the Egyptian sultan dismissed it because he likely realized this to be so. The fear that the Ethiopians might tamper with the Nile, states Pankhurst, was nevertheless to remain with Egyptians for many centuries.

From Wikipedia: Sultanate of Ifat · History: Conflict with Abyssinia (CC BY-SA 4.0)

the Amhara pursued Sa'd al-Din as far as the peninsula of Zeila, in the ocean, where he took refuge. The Amhara besieged him there, and deprived him of water; at last one of the impious showed them a way by which they could reach him. When they came upon him a battle ensued; and after three days the water failed. Sa'd al Din was wounded in the forehead and fell to the ground, whereupon they pierced him with their swords. But he died happily, falling in God's cause.

From Wikipedia: Sultanate of Ifat · History: Decline and fall (CC BY-SA 4.0)

In 1415, Sabr ad-Din III, the eldest son of Sa'ad ad-Din II, would return to Adal from his exile in Arabia to restore his father's throne. He would proclaim himself "king of Adal" after his return from Yemen to the Harar plateau and established his new capital at Dakkar. Sabr ad-Din III and his brothers would defeat an army of 20,000 men led by an unnamed commander hoping to restore the "lost Amhara rule". The victorious king then returned to his capital, but gave the order to his many followers to continue and extend the war against the Christians. The Emperor of Ethiopia Tewodros I was soon killed by the Adal Sultanate upon the return of Sa'ad ad-Din's heirs to the Horn of Africa.

From Wikipedia: Adal Sultanate · History: Rise of the Sultanate (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Ulrich Braukämper mentions that Adal was distinguished by its ethnic variety which included Somalis, Afars, Argobba, and Hararis. Ethiopian historian Taddesse Tamrat states that Adal's central authority in the fourteenth century consisted of the Argobba, Harari and Silt'e people. Professor Donald N. Levine, an important figure in Ethiopian Studies, described the Adal Sultanate as consisting of many ethnic groups, but primarily Somalis and Afars. Somali scholar Abdurahman Abdullahi Baadiyow notes that Somalis joined the Adal Sultanate in the 13th century and were instrumental in the ensuing conflicts with Abyssinia. The Somali tribes, already influential in Adal's politics, rose to greater prominence with the emergence of Garad Abun.

From Wikipedia: Adal Sultanate · Demographics (CC BY-SA 4.0)

One of the empire's most wealthy provinces was Ifat it was well watered, by the large river Awash. Additionally, besides the surviving Awash River, at least five other rivers in the area between Harar and Shawa plateau existed. The general area was well cultivated, densely populated with numerous villages adjoining each other. Agricultural produce included three main cereals, wheat, sorghum and teff, as well as beans, aubergines, melons, cucumbers, marrows, cauliflowers and mustard. Many different types of fruit were grown, among them bananas, lemons, limes, pomegranates, apricots, peaces, citrons mulberries and grapes. Other plants included sycamore tree, sugar cane, from which kandi, or sugar was extracted and inedible wild figs.

From Wikipedia: Adal Sultanate · Economy (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The Military of Adal was divided into several sections such as the infantry consisting of swordsmen, archers and lancers that were commanded by various generals and lieutenants. These forces were complemented by a cavalry force and eventually, later in the empire's history, by matchlock-technology and cannons during the Conquest of Abyssinia. The various divisions were symbolised with a distinct flag.

From Wikipedia: Adal Sultanate · Military (CC BY-SA 4.0)

In 1550 Nur ibn Mujahid became the Emir of Harar and the de facto ruler of Adal, he then began to strengthen the defenses of Harar, building a wall that still encircles the city to this day. In 1559, urged on by his wife, Nur once again took the offensive and invaded the Ethiopian Empire, killing Ethiopian Emperor Gelawdewos in the Battle of Fatagar. At the same time another Ethiopian army led by Dejazmatch Hamalmal attacked Harar. Sultan Barakat ibn Umar Din attempted to defend the city but was defeated and killed, thus ending the Walashma dynasty. Not long after this, Barentu Oromos who had been migrating north invaded the Adal Sultanate. This struggle, which was mentioned by the monk Bahrey, led to the devastation of many regions and Nur's army was defeated at the Battle of Hazalo.

From Wikipedia: Adal Sultanate · History: Collapse of the sultanate (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The Adal Sultanate left behind many structures, artefacts and remains from its heyday. Numerous such historical edifices and items are found in the northwestern Awdal province of Somaliland, as well as other parts of the Horn region where the polity held sway. According to archaeologist Jorge Rodriguez, substances located in western northern Somalia indicate outposts were mainly established during the Adal Sultanate, and don't predate the ruins found in ancient Islamic regions of Ifat or Harar plateau, this he states reaffirms the notion that modern eastern Ethiopia is where the principal Muslim kingdoms materialized.

From Wikipedia: Adal Sultanate · Legacy (CC BY-SA 4.0)