Medieval States of Mesopotamia and the Levant: Map & History

Christian J. Robin's study of pre-Islamic epigraphy has suggested that between the third and fourth centuries CE, the Ghassanids were the main tribal confederation acting in the Hejaz, with a base that may have been stationed at Medina. Additional support for this geography has come from new discoveries. The period of Ghassanid domination of this region ended when the Ghassanids migrated northwards, into the territory of Syria, which would remain their main base of operations until Islamic times.

From Wikipedia: Ghassanids · History: Origins (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The Ghassanids are often described as supporters of Miaphysite Christianity, particularly in the mid-sixth century. This view is based mainly on partisan Syriac authors such as John of Ephesus and Michael the Syrian, who portray Jafnid rulers as prominent allies of the Miaphysites and opponents of Chalcedonian Christianity. John of Ephesus credits Al-Harith with helping secure imperial approval for the consecration of Miaphysite bishops, including Jacob Baradaeus, and portrays Al-Mundhir as a participant of Miaphysite disputes and councils.

From Wikipedia: Ghassanids · Religion: Miaphysite position (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The Ghassanids fought alongside the Eastern Roman Empire against the Persian Sasanians and Arab Lakhmids. The lands of the Ghassanids also continually acted as a buffer zone, protecting Byzantine lands against raids by Bedouin tribes. Among their Arab allies were the Banu Judham and Banu Amilah.

From Wikipedia: Ghassanids · History: Military rivalry with the Persians and Sasanians (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Archaeological evidence indicates that the Ghassanids were closely associated with late antique Christian architecture in the Levant, though few securely attributed examples have been found. The Ghassanid identity of most sites associated with them lack concrete confirmation. For this reason, scholars have restricted securely identified Ghassanid buildings to those with epigraphic confirmation. Where such evidence exists, Jafnid architecture conforms closely to established Roman and Byzantine Christian forms, employing Greek inscriptions, standard church plans, and decorative programs common throughout Syria and Arabia in the sixth century.

From Wikipedia: Ghassanids · Architecture (CC BY-SA 4.0)

As the Ghassanids gained overwhelming power in the second half of the sixth century, having transitioned well past the level of disorganized raiders from earlier centuries, the Byzantine rulers began to see them as a dangerous force that could vie for independence.

From Wikipedia: Ghassanids · History: The "Dissolution" period under Maurice (582–585 AD) (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The Ghassanids reached their peak under al-Harith V and al-Mundhir III. Both were militarily successful allies of the Byzantines, especially against their enemies the Lakhmids, and secured Byzantium's southern flank and its political and commercial interests in Arabia proper. On the other hand, the Ghassanids remained fervently dedicated to Miaphysitism, which brought about their break with Byzantium and Mundhir's own downfall and exile, which was followed after 586 by the dissolution of the Ghassanid federation. The Ghassanids' patronage of the Miaphysite Syrian Church was crucial for its survival and revival, and even its spread, through missionary activities, south into Arabia. According to the historian Warwick Ball, the Ghassanids' promotion of a simpler and more rigidly monotheistic form of Christianity in a specifically Arab context can be said to have anticipated Islam.

From Wikipedia: Ghassanids · Legacy (CC BY-SA 4.0)

During the disintegration years of the Ilkhanate after the death of Abu Sa'id Bahadur Khan in 1335, the family of emir Ilge (Īlgā) Noyan, known as Köke (Kukā, 'Blue') Ilge, descendants of the Jalayirid tribe, first emerged as the inheritors of the traditional governors of the southwestern lands of the Ilkhanate. The Jalairs hailed from pasturelands along the River Onon in Mongolia and produced several military commanders during the Mongol era. According to the Jami' al-tawarikh written by Rashid-al-Din Hamadani, Ilge, who accompanied Hulegu on his great expedition to West Asia in the 1250s, was among the generals who besieged the Assassins' strongholds in Qohestan in 1256. Besides, Ilge joined the expedition to Baghdad and was tasked with overseeing the rebuilding of the city after its siege in 1258. Ilge Noyan served Hülegü until the khan's death in 1265.

From Wikipedia: Jalayirid Sultanate · History: Early years (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The Jalayirid administration was modeled after Ilkhanate protocols, with documents in Persian and Mongolian. Its diplomatic correspondence also resembled the Ilkhanate's, using a red ink square seal with Islamic phrases in Arabic.

From Wikipedia: Jalayirid Sultanate · Government (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Albums of the period, such as Saray Album H.2153 or Saray Album H.2160 often contain foreign work or works "in the manner of", complete with labelled inscriptions of as “Cathayan work” (kāri khaṭāy/khiṭāy) or “Frankish work” (kāri farang/firang). One such example is the a Europeanizing ink and wash drawing, named Eight Figures in European Attire, a work "in the Frankish manner" in the European "grisaille" style, located next to works attributed to Ahmad Musa (H. 2153, fols. 55r, 54v). Another Jalayirid work, named Celestial Vision, combines elements from the arts of Europe (a Christian scene of enlightenment, in the style of Taddeo Gaddi’s Annunciation to the Shepherds (1327–30) of Pietro Lorenzetti’s Stigmata of St. Francis (c. 1320), and China (a bent tree, a five-clawed two-horned imperial dragon, Chinese cloud bands).

From Wikipedia: Jalayirid Sultanate · International influences in Jalayirid art (CC BY-SA 4.0)

As soon as Shaikh Hussain Jalayir (ruled 1374-1382) started his reign, Tabriz was raided by the Muzaffarids, hailing from Isfahan. In 1376, Shaikh Hussain Jalayir finally took up residence in Tabriz. In the following spring, he undertook a successful campaign against the Qara Qoyunlu under Bayram Khwaja, who had been raiding from the west.

From Wikipedia: Jalayirid Sultanate · History: Decline (CC BY-SA 4.0)

During the 14th century, the Qara Qoyunlu had several encounters with the powerful Jalayirid Sultanate, which was based in Baghdad and Tabriz. In 1366, Shaykh Uways Jalayir marched against the Qara Qoyunlu, defeating their leader Birdi Khwaja in Mosul and his brother Bayram Khwaja, at the battle of Mush. The Qara Qoyunlu Turkomans then became vassals of the Jalayirid Sultanate from about 1375, and the leader of their leading tribe ruled from Mosul. The Qara Qoyunlu ruler Qara Mahammad invaded Mardin in 1384 and received the submission of its Artuqid ruler Majd al-Din Isa Al-Zahir (1376-1407), who became a vassal.

From Wikipedia: Qara Qoyunlu · History: Rise (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The Qara Qoyunlu state organization was based mainly on of its predecessors, Jalayirids, and the Ilkhanids. Qara Qoyunlu rulers used the title sultan since the enthronement of Pirbudag by Qara Yusuf. Sometimes the title bahadur appeared on the coinage. They also used the titles khan, khagan and padishah.

From Wikipedia: Qara Qoyunlu · Governance (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Jahan Shah is known for several architectural contributions through western Iran. The Northern Iwan of Darb-e Imam in Isfahan is attributed to him. He commissioned and dedicated the monument in 1453, two years after conquering the city. The gate is considered as "a masterpiece of tile decoration", and "among the finest specimens of such work in Persia". It has a monumental inscription in Persian recording the rule of Jahanshah and the local governorship of his son Moḥammad: "When the ruler of the greatest domain, lord of the mightiest realm, and sovereign protector of the world Abu’l-Moẓaffar Mīrzāda Jahānšāh, may God perpetuate his stewardship, entrusted the government of this province to the care and direction of the prince, the support of the pillars of the religion of Moḥammad Abu’l-Fatḥ Moḥammadī...".

From Wikipedia: Qara Qoyunlu · Culture: Architecture (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Though much territory was gained during his rule, Jahān Shāh's reign was troubled by his rebellious sons and the almost autonomous rulers of Baghdad, whom he expelled in 1464. In 1466, Jahan Shah attempt to take Diyarbakır from the Aq Qoyunlu ("White Sheep Turkomans") ended in a catastrophic failure, which resulted in Jahān Shāh's death in the Battle of Chapakchur in 1467 and the collapse of the Qara Qoyunlu control in the Middle East. This time Hasanali Mirza came to power, but was killed by Uzun Hasan. By 1468, at their height under Uzun Hasan (1452–1478), the Aq Qoyunlu defeated the Qara Qoyunlu and conquered Iraq, Azerbaijan, and western Iran.

From Wikipedia: Qara Qoyunlu · History: Decline (CC BY-SA 4.0)