Modern States of Maritime Southeast Asia: Map & History

Since the VOC era, the highest Dutch authority in the colony resided with the office of the governor-general. During the Dutch East Indies era the governor-general functioned as chief executive president of colonial government and served as commander-in-chief of the colonial army (KNIL). Until 1903 all government officials and organisations were formal agents of the governor-general and were entirely dependent on the central administration of the 'office of the governor-general' for their budgets. Until 1815 the governor-general had the absolute right to ban, censor or restrict any publication in the colony. The so-called exorbitant powers of the governor-general allowed him to exile anyone regarded as subversive and dangerous to peace and order, without involving any Court of Law.

From Wikipedia: Dutch East Indies · Government: Law and administration (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The economic history of the colony was closely related to the economic health of the Netherlands. Despite increasing returns from the Dutch land tax system, Dutch finances had been severely affected by the cost of the Java War and the Padri War, and the Dutch loss of Belgium in 1830 brought the Netherlands to the brink of bankruptcy. In 1830, a new governor-general, Johannes van den Bosch, was appointed to exploit the Indies through Dutch appropriation of its resources. With the Dutch achieving political domination throughout Java for the first time in 1830, it was then possible to introduce an agricultural policy of government-controlled forced cultivation. Termed cultuurstelsel (cultivation system) in Dutch and tanam paksa (forced plantation) in Indonesia, farmers were required to deliver, as a form of tax, fixed amounts of specified crops, such as sugar or coffee.

From Wikipedia: Dutch East Indies · Economy (CC BY-SA 4.0)

From the arrival of the first Dutch ships in the late 16th century, to the declaration of independence in 1945, Dutch control over the Indonesian archipelago was always tenuous. Although Java was dominated by the Dutch, many areas remained independent throughout much of this time, including Aceh, Bali, Lombok and Borneo. There were numerous wars and disturbances across the archipelago as various indigenous groups resisted efforts to establish Dutch hegemony, which weakened Dutch control and tied up its military forces. Piracy remained a problem until the mid-19th century. Finally, in the early 20th century, imperial dominance was extended across what was to become the territory of modern-day Indonesia.

From Wikipedia: Dutch East Indies · History: Dutch conquests (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The Dutch school system was extended to Indonesians with the most prestigious schools admitting Dutch children and those of the Indonesian upper class. A second tier of schooling was based on ethnicity with separate schools for Indonesians, Arabs, and Chinese being taught in Dutch and with a Dutch curriculum. Ordinary Indonesians were educated in Malay in Roman alphabet with "link" schools preparing bright Indonesian students for entry into the Dutch-language schools. Vocational schools and programs were set up by the Indies government to train indigenous Indonesians for specific roles in the colonial economy. Chinese and Arabs, officially termed "foreign orientals", could not enrol in either the vocational schools or primary schools.

From Wikipedia: Dutch East Indies · Education (CC BY-SA 4.0)

When the Dutch royal family was established in 1815, much of its wealth came from colonial trade.

From Wikipedia: Dutch East Indies · Colonial heritage in the Netherlands (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The globalisation of the 19th century opened new opportunities for the Riau-Lingga Sultanate. Proximity to cosmopolitan Singapore, just 40 miles away, shaped the political climate of the kingdom, giving Riau Malays an opportunity to familiarise themselves with new ideas from the Middle East. The opening of Suez Canal meant a journey to Mecca via Port Said, Egypt and Singapore could take no more than a fortnight; thus these cities became major ports for the Hajj pilgrimage.

From Wikipedia: Riau-Lingga Sultanate · History: The rise of nationalism (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The viceregal house of Riau claimed to trace their ancestry from the Bugis Royal House in Luwu, Celebes. The Bugis prominence in the region began during the reign of Abdu'l-Jalil Rahmat of Johor-Riau, during the period of turbulence the Sultan was killed by Raja Kecil who claimed that he was an offspring of the late Sultan Mahmud. He later descent as the Sultan of old Johor. The death of Abdul Jalil was witnessed by his son, Sulaiman of Johor-Riau, who later then requested aid from the Bugis of Klang to combat Raja Kecil and his troops. The alliance formed between Sulaiman and the Bugis managed to defeat Raja Kecil off from his throne.

From Wikipedia: Riau-Lingga Sultanate · Government: Yang di-Pertuan Muda (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Observing the rise of the Islamic Brotherhood that gained momentum in the late 18th century, the Riau-Lingga Sultanate regarded the Ottoman Empire as a protector against non-Muslim colonial powers. In the eyes of the ruling elite of the court, the Ottomans were a source of inspiration and a balancing power between the western powers and Islamic world. The Crimean War fought by the Ottomans was regarded as a struggle of a "Muslim power" against the "Foreigners", Christians, which to a degree corresponded with the struggle faced in Riau-Lingga.

From Wikipedia: Riau-Lingga Sultanate · Foreign relations and trade: Ottomans (CC BY-SA 4.0)

A prominent figure in Malay and Indonesian literature in the Riau-Lingga Sultanate was Ali Haji of Riau, born in Selangor and raised in the Royal Court in Penyengat. He was celebrated as a prolific author, poet, historian, legal jurist and linguist. Some of his works are considered the Magna opera of the Malay literature, including Tuhfat al-Nafis ("the Precious Gift"), Kitab Pengetahuan Bahasa ("Book of Language") — the first dictionary in Malay and Gurindam dua belas ("The Twelve Gurindams"). His works played a vital role in the development of the Malay and modern-Indonesian language. He spent most of his life writing and researching the Malay language, history, culture and law.

From Wikipedia: Riau-Lingga Sultanate · Literature (CC BY-SA 4.0)

On 18 May 1905, the Dutch demanded a new agreement with the sultan, stipulating further limits on the powers of the Riau-Lingga Sultanate, requiring that the Dutch flag must be raised higher than the flag of Riau, and specifying that Dutch officials should be given supreme honour in the land. The agreement further stipulated that the Riau-Lingga Sultanate was a mere achazat (Dutch: loan) from the Dutch Government. The agreement was drawn up due to the fact that the appointment of Sultan Abdul Rahman II (1885–1911) had not been made with the consent of the Dutch and he was also clearly against colonial rule.

From Wikipedia: Riau-Lingga Sultanate · History: Dissolution by the Dutch (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The sultanate is widely credited in the development of the Malay and Indonesian language, as various books, literary works and dictionary was contributed in the sultanate. These works formed as the backbone of the modern Indonesian language. Raja Ali Haji, was celebrated for his contribution on the language and honoured as the National Hero of Indonesia in 2004.

From Wikipedia: Riau-Lingga Sultanate · Legacy (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Legislative power in the state is exercised by the Perlis State Legislative Assembly, a unicameral chamber in which all 15 seats are elected from single-member constituencies. After the 2022 state election, the Perikatan Nasional coalition led by the Malaysian Islamic Party holds 14 of the assembly's 15 seats, with the last remaining seat went to Pakatan Harapan coalition. However on 24 December 2025, three Perlis PAS assemblymen — Ridzuan Hashim (Guar Sanji), Fakhrul Anwar Ismail (Bintong) and Saad Seman (Chuping) had their memberships terminated by speaker Russele Eizan for signing statutory declarations withdrawing support for former Menteri Besar Mohd Shukri Ramli, resulting in three vaccancies in the state legislature. With only two years until the expiry of the legislative term, no by-elections were called to date.

From Wikipedia: Perlis · Government: Legislature (CC BY-SA 4.0)

When he returned to Sarawak, the rebellion against Brunei's rule was still ongoing and Hashim asked Brooke to help. Brooke joined Mahkota's forces at Leda Tanah on 18 October 1840. By 20 December 1840 the rebels offered to surrender to Brooke provided they should not be put to death. Hashim initially refused to pardon them and wanted to execute them all, but was convinced by Brooke to forgive them, as Brooke had taken the major part in their suppression. "Hassim agreed to spare the insurgents’ lives and took the wives and children of the insurgency's leaders as hostages. Of the leaders themselves, Datu Patinggi Abdul Gapur and Datu Tumanggong Mersal withdrew to the protection of Sambas, while Datu Patinggi Ali found refuge among the Malays at Sarikei."

From Wikipedia: Raj of Sarawak · History: Establishment (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Prior to the establishment of the Sarawak Administrative Service under Charles Brooke, there had been no formal civil administration. The civil service recruited Europeans, mainly British officers, to run district outstations where the residents became exposed to and trained in many British and European methods and culture, while retaining the customs of the indigenous people. After the acquisition of more territory, Sarawak was divided into five divisions, each headed by a Resident. A Resident's job was to establish law and order, convene courts to settle disputes, punish crimes, be accessible at all times to the natives, and "gain the confidence of the chiefs of the wilder tribes and to lead them to accept the Sarawak flag and the benefits of the Rajah's government". The Rajahs also encouraged the establishment of schools, healthcare services and transport.

From Wikipedia: Raj of Sarawak · Government (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Upon acquisition of his first territories in the First Division, James Brooke came into possession of a large quantity of antimony from mines around the area. At the time of his arrival, a land tenure system known as the Native Customary Rights had been practised by the indigenous communities. James Brooke's first priority was to abolish headhunting among the indigenous communities of the interior. The kingdom's authorities conducted repeated raids on Sea Dayak villages and, facing a major rebellion, ultimately forced them to practice horticulture and abandon headhunting. Land Dayaks had also been involved in headhunting but more readily abandoned the practice and became loyal followers of James Brooke. Most Malay coastal villages were also raided as part of the kingdom's policy to combat piracy and slavery.

From Wikipedia: Raj of Sarawak · Economy: Population (CC BY-SA 4.0)

After World War I, the Empire of Japan began to expand its range in Asia and the Pacific. Vyner was aware of the growing threat and began to institute reforms. Under the treaty of protection, Britain was responsible for Sarawak's defence but could do little, most of its forces having been deployed to the war in Europe against Germany and the Kingdom of Italy. The defence of Sarawak depended on a single Indian infantry battalion, the 2/15 Punjab Regiment, together with the local forces of Sarawak and Brunei. As Sarawak had several oil refineries in Miri and Lutong, the British feared that they would fall to the Japanese and thus instructed the infantry to carry out a scorched earth policy.

From Wikipedia: Raj of Sarawak · History: World War II and decline (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Muzaffar Shah, the 5th Sultan of Melaka who reigned from 1445 to 1458 refused to acknowledge the suzerainty of Ligor over his country. The Ligorians, in assertion of their claim, sent an invading army led by Awi Chakri, overland to Melaka. The invaders, who were aided by auxiliaries from the Pahang Kingdom, followed the old route by the Tembeling, Pahang and Bera rivers. They were easily defeated and fled back by the same route. Subsequently, they attempted a naval invasion, and were again beaten. Muzaffar Shah then conceived the idea of checking Ligorian pretensions by attacking the Ligor vassal state, Pahang. An expedition was organised by Muzaffar's son, Raja Abdullah and was personally led by the Melakan Bendahara Tun Perak with two hundred ships, proceeded to Pahang and conquered it in 1454.

From Wikipedia: Pahang Sultanate · Origin: Melakan conquest of Pahang (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The system of administration adopted by the sultanate is largely modelled on that of Melaka. The Malay Annals state that during the installation of Muhammad Shah as the first sultan in 1470, he was accompanied by Tun Hamzah who was appointed Bendahara for the new kingdom, by Seri Akar Raja as his Hulubalang, a Penghulu Bendahari, and a Temenggung. By the time of Sultan Abdul Ghafur, a sophisticated social hierarchy had been established, of which the most important were the offices of four major hereditary chiefs who were granted their respective fiefs to govern on behalf of the sultan. The system survived until modern times.

From Wikipedia: Pahang Sultanate · Administration (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Since the pre-Melakan era, the inland river-valley routes that crossed through Pahang formed a significant trading network linking the east and west coast of the peninsula. The inland attractions were threefold; first the presence of gold in the interior along the Tembeling and Jelai rivers, as well as in Kelantan to the north, second, the presence of tradable forest products, and of local people, the Orang Asli where were skilled at getting them, and lastly, the suitability of most of the state for long-distance travel, because of its relatively non-mountainous and open terrain.

From Wikipedia: Pahang Sultanate · Economy (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Separation of Church and State, which had been deeply intertwined under Ferdinand VII and only slightly separated by Isabella II.

From Wikipedia: First Spanish Republic · The government of Pi i Margall (CC BY-SA 4.0)

On 29 December 1874 in Sagunto, General Arsenio Martínez Campos came out in favour of the restoration to the throne of the Bourbon monarchy in the personage of Don Alfonso de Borbón, son of Isabel II. The government of Sagasta did not oppose this announcement, permitting the restoration of the monarchy. The triumph of the Bourbon Restoration succeeded thanks to the previous work of Antonio Cánovas del Castillo, which without a doubt was contrary to military rule.

From Wikipedia: First Spanish Republic · End of the Republic (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Papua New Guinea is a Commonwealth realm with Charles III as king. The monarch's representative is the governor-general of Papua New Guinea, who is elected by the unicameral National Parliament of Papua New Guinea. The National Parliament elects the prime minister of Papua New Guinea, who is then appointed by the governor-general. The other ministers are appointed by the governor-general on the prime minister's advice and form the National Executive Council of Papua New Guinea, which acts as the country's cabinet. The National Parliament sits for a maximum of five years. It has 118 seats, with 96 representing districts, and 22 representing province-level electorates (20 provinces, the National Capital District, and the Autonomous Region of Bougainville) who serve as governors of those provinces.

From Wikipedia: Papua New Guinea · Government and politics (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Papua New Guinea is classified as a developing economy by the International Monetary Fund. The economy is largely dependent on natural resources, with capital investment concentrated in mining and oil, while most labour is employed in agriculture. As of 2018, natural resource extraction made up 28% of overall GDP, with substantial contributors including minerals, oil, and natural gas. Measuring economic growth is difficult due to the resource-dependent economy distorting GDP. Other metrics such as gross national income are hard to measure. Even historical GDP estimates have changed dramatically. As of 2019, PNG's real GDP growth rate was 3.8%, with an inflation rate of 4.3%. The national currency, the Kina, is regulated by the Bank of Papua New Guinea, which has varied its approach to managing the exchange rate. Formal employment is low.

From Wikipedia: Papua New Guinea · Economy (CC BY-SA 4.0)

During World War II, Japanese forces sought to capture Port Moresby, invading overland in mid-1942 and moving south in the Kokoda Track campaign. Australian forces carried out rearguard actions as they withdrew almost to Port Moresby. In September an Australian counter-offensive began, and Japanese forces fought rearguard actions as they retreated north. Australian forces were supported during this campaign through significant contributions from local soldiers and helpers. While this campaign was ongoing, the Japanese launched the Battle of Milne Bay, where their attack was repulsed by Australian and American forces. These events, along with the nearby Guadalcanal campaign, marked a turning point in the Pacific War. A war of attrition continued until 1944, when allied forces fully recaptured Papua and New Guinea.

From Wikipedia: Papua New Guinea · History: World War II and Australian rule (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Melanesian culture developed without significant external influence due to the isolation of New Guinea. This culture places significant importance on relationships, both between people and between a person and aspects of the natural environment. The importance of relationships is seen in the Kula ring trade, where items are traded to maintain relationships rather than for direct economic benefit. Connections to and ownership of land are important, although these are generally at the community level rather than an individual one. Local in-group relations are a strong component of the wantok system, and so treatment by individuals of those in their communities will often differ from the way they treat those of other communities. The value of actions is often evaluated predominantly or exclusively by impact on one's local community.

From Wikipedia: Papua New Guinea · Culture (CC BY-SA 4.0)

It is likely that some ships from China and Southeast Asia visited the island at times and that there was some contact with New Guinean communities. Portuguese explorer António de Abreu was the first European to discover the island of New Guinea. Portuguese traders introduced the South American sweet potato to the Moluccas. From there, it likely spread to New Guinea sometime in the 17th or 18th century, initially from the southern coast. It spread inland to the highlands and became a staple food. The introduction of the sweet potato, possibly alongside other agricultural changes, transformed traditional agriculture and societies. This likely led to the spread of the big man social structure. Sweet potato largely supplanted the previous staple, taro, and led to significant population growth in the highlands.

From Wikipedia: Papua New Guinea · History: European influence (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Prior to its independence, the government of the Federation of Malaya was headed by a British high commissioner with executive powers, assisted and advised by the Federation of Malaya Executive Council and the Federation of Malaya Legislative Council.

From Wikipedia: Federation of Malaya · System of government (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Cultural remains at Jerimalai on the eastern tip of Timor-Leste have been dated to 42,000 years ago. The first known inhabitants are those who arrived during the Australo-Melanesian migration through the region, likely bringing the precursors to today's Papuan languages. A later migration of Austroasiatic-speakers is suspected, although no such languages remain. The arrival of Austronesian peoples brought new languages, and merged with existing cultures on the island. Timorese origin myths recount settlers sailing around the eastern end of the island before landing in the south. These people are sometimes noted as being from the Malay Peninsula or the Minangkabau highlands of Sumatra. Austronesian migration to Timor may be associated with the development of agriculture on the island.

From Wikipedia: Timor-Leste · History: Prehistory and Classical era (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The political system of Timor-Leste is semi-presidential, based upon the Portuguese system. The constitution establishes both this separation of executive powers between the president and the prime minister; and the separation of powers between the executive, legislature, and judiciary. Individuals are not allowed to participate in both the legislature and the executive branch. The legislature is intended to provide a check on the executive; in practice the executive has maintained control of the legislature under all political parties, reflecting the dominance of individual leaders within political parties and coalitions. The executive, through the council of ministers, also holds some formal legislative powers. The judiciary operates independently, although there are instances of executive interference.

From Wikipedia: Timor-Leste · Government and politics (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The economy of Timor-Leste is a market economy, although it is dependent upon the export of a few commodities and has a large public sector. Internally, market operations are limited by widespread poverty. The country uses the United States dollar, producing its own coins to facilitate smaller transactions. The economy is generally open to foreign investment, although a prohibition on foreigners owning land means many require a local partner in the country. Competition is limited by the small size of the economy, rather than any government barriers. There are far more imports than exports, and prices for goods are often higher than in nearby countries. Inflation is strongly affected by government spending. Growth has been slow, averaging just 2.5% per year from 2011 to 2021.

From Wikipedia: Timor-Leste · Economy (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The culture of Timor-Leste stem from several waves of Austronesian and Melanesian migration that led to the current population, with unique identities and traditions developing within each petty kingdom. Portuguese authorities built upon traditional structures, blending Portuguese influence into the existing political and social systems. The presence of the Catholic Church created a point of commonality across the various ethnic groups, despite full conversion remaining limited. The Portuguese language also provided common linkages, even if direct Portuguese impact was limited. Under Indonesian rule, resistance strengthened cultural links to Catholicism and the Portuguese language. At the same time, Indonesian cultural influence was spread through schools and administration.

From Wikipedia: Timor-Leste · Culture (CC BY-SA 4.0)