Ancient States of the Steppe and Central Asia: Map & History

The Great Yuezhi were a nomadic horde. They moved about following their cattle, and had the same customs as those of the Xiongnu. As their soldiers numbered more than a hundred thousand, they were strong and despised the Xiongnu. In the past, they lived in the region between Dunhuang and Qilian. The area between the Qilian Mountains and Dunhuang lies in the western part of the modern Chinese province of Gansu, but no archaeological remains of the Yuezhi have yet been found in this area. Some scholars have argued that "Dunhuang" should be Dunhong, a mountain in the Tian Shan, and that Qilian should be interpreted as a name for the Tian Shan. They have thus placed the original homeland of the Yuezhi 1,000 km further northwest in the grasslands to the north of the Tian Shan (in the northern part of modern Xinjiang).

From Wikipedia: Yuezhi · Account of Zhang Qian: Conflict with Xiongnu (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Looking at the archaeological and genetic evidence, another area of origin on the northeastern border of the Tarim Basin has also been proposed: the Yuegongtai-Xiheigou (岳公台-西黑沟) archaeological sites, corresponding to the Shirenzigou culture and Barkol culture in the Barkol County of Xinjiang. This would have positioned the Yuezhi between the Subeshi culture to their west, the Yanbulaq culture to their east, the aftermaths of the Chemurchek culture to the north, and a wide desertical area to south about a thousand kilometers away from the Central Plains of China.

From Wikipedia: Yuezhi · Proposed links to other groups: Shirenzigou culture (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The Wusun were first mentioned by Chinese sources as living together with the Yuezhi between the Qilian Mountains and Dunhuang (Gansu). although different locations have been suggested for these toponyms.

From Wikipedia: Wusun · History: Early history (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The Wusun are generally believed to be an Indo-European people and speak a language belonging to the Indo-Iranian branch. They are thought to be Iranian-speaking by the archaeologist Elena Kuzmina, linguist János Harmatta, Joseph Kitagawa, David Durand-Guédy, Turkologist Peter B. Golden and Central Asian scholar Denis Sinor. Yan Shigu (581–645) described the Wusun's descendants with the exonym 胡人 Húrén "foreigners, barbarians", which had been used since the 6th century to denote Iranian peoples, especially Sogdians, in Central Asia, besides other non-Chinese peoples. Archaeological evidence also supports the idea that Wusuns were Iranian speakers.

From Wikipedia: Wusun · Language (CC BY-SA 4.0)

According to the Shiji (c. 123) and the Book of Han (c. 96), Liu Xijun, a daughter of the Han prince Liu Jian, was sent to the ruler (kunmi or kunmo) of the Wusun between 110 BC and 105 BC. She describes them as nomads who lived in felt tents, ate raw meat and drank fermented mare's milk. Some early Chinese descriptions of the people were pejorative, describing them as "bad, greedy and unreliable, and much given to robbery", but their state was also described as very strong. However, the Wusun were also noted for their harmony towards their neighbours, even though they were constantly raided by the Xiongnu and Kangju.

From Wikipedia: Wusun · Economy (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Genghis Khan united the Mongol tribes of the steppes and became Great Khan in 1206. He and his successors expanded the Mongol empire across Asia. Under the reign of Genghis' third son, Ögedei Khan, the Mongols destroyed the weakened Jin dynasty in 1234, conquering most of northern China. Ögedei offered his nephew Kublai a position in Xingzhou, Hebei. Kublai was unable to read Chinese but had several Han teachers attached to him since his early years by his mother Sorghaghtani. He sought the counsel of Chinese Buddhist and Confucian advisers. Möngke Khan succeeded Ögedei's son, Güyük, as Great Khan in 1251. He granted his brother Kublai control over Mongol held territories in China. Kublai built schools for Confucian scholars, issued paper money, revived Chinese rituals, and endorsed policies that stimulated agricultural and commercial growth.

From Wikipedia: Yuan dynasty · History: Background (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The Yuan government was centred on the emperor, huangdi in Chinese and khagan in Mongolian. Unlike ethnically Han dynasties, the Yuan court did not adhere to primogeniture and all of Kublai's descendants were eligible candidates for the throne. Election Kurultais (assemblies), during which genuine discussion on the succession would occur, were held until 1311. With the enthronement of Gegeen Khan in 1320, kurultais became a formality and real power over succession was held by empress-dowagers, guard units, or high officials.

From Wikipedia: Yuan dynasty · Government: Institutions (CC BY-SA 4.0)

After strengthening his government in northern China, Kublai pursued an expansionist policy in line with the tradition of Mongol and Chinese imperialism. He renewed a massive drive against the Song dynasty to the south. Kublai besieged Xiangyang between 1268 and 1273, the last obstacle in his way to capture the rich Yangtze River basin. An unsuccessful naval expedition was undertaken against Japan in 1274. The Duan family ruling the Kingdom of Dali in Yunnan submitted to the Yuan dynasty as vassals and were allowed to keep their throne, militarily assisting the Yuan dynasty against the Song dynasty in southern China.

From Wikipedia: Yuan dynasty · History: Military conquests and campaigns (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The Mongol rulers patronized the Yuan printing industry. Chinese printing technology was transferred to the Mongols through Kingdom of Qocho and Tibetan intermediaries. Some Yuan documents such as Wang Zhen's Nong Shu were printed with earthenware movable type, a technology invented in the 12th century. However, most published works were still produced through traditional block printing techniques. The publication of a Taoist text inscribed with the name of Töregene Khatun, Ögedei's wife, is one of the first printed works sponsored by the Mongols. In 1273, the Mongols created the Imperial Library Directorate, a government-sponsored printing office. The Yuan government established centres for printing throughout China. Local schools and government agencies were funded to support the publishing of books.

From Wikipedia: Yuan dynasty · Science and technology: Printing and publishing (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The final years of the Yuan dynasty were marked by struggle, famine, and bitterness among the populace. In time, Kublai Khan's successors lost all influence on other Mongol lands across Asia, while the Mongols beyond the Middle Kingdom saw them as too Chinese. Gradually, they lost influence in China as well. The reigns of the later Yuan emperors were short and marked by intrigues and rivalries. Uninterested in administration, they were separated from both the army and the populace, and China was torn by dissension and unrest. Outlaws ravaged the country without interference from the weakening Yuan armies.

From Wikipedia: Yuan dynasty · History: Decline of the empire (CC BY-SA 4.0)

A rich cultural diversity developed during the Yuan dynasty. The major cultural achievements were the development of drama and the novel and the increased use of the written vernacular. Arts and culture also greatly developed and flourished during the Yuan dynasty. There was a widespread introduction of blue and white painted porcelain, as well as a major change to Chinese painting. The political unity of China and much of central Asia promoted trade between East and West. The Mongols' extensive West Asian and European contacts produced a fair amount of cultural exchange. The other cultures and peoples in the Mongol Empire also very much influenced China. It had significantly eased trade and commerce across Asia until its decline; the communications between Yuan dynasty and its ally and subordinate in Persia, the Ilkhanate, encouraged this development.

From Wikipedia: Yuan dynasty · Impact (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Warring States period's Chinese literature contains early mentions of Xianbei, as in the poem The Great Summons in the anthology Chu Ci and possibly the chapter "Discourses of Jin 8" in the Guoyu. However the early appearance of the word xianbei in the Chu ci refers to a belt buckle rather than a people.

From Wikipedia: Xianbei · History: Origin (CC BY-SA 4.0)

According to the Book of the Later Han, "the language and culture of the Xianbei are the same as the Wuhuan".

From Wikipedia: Xianbei · Language: Classification (CC BY-SA 4.0)

After the rebellion of the six garrisons in 524, leaders from the northern garrisons took power and split the Northern Wei dynasty into two competing regimes in the east and west led by the ethnically Han and Xiongnu Gao and Yuwen clans that had assimilated into Xianbei culture. From 537 to 546, the two sides fought with no definitive outcome. After Gao Huan died in 546, the two sides settled into a low intensity conflict.

From Wikipedia: Xianbei · Military: Eastern and western armies (CC BY-SA 4.0)

In 493, three years after the death of Wenming, Emperor Xiaowen moved the capital from Pingcheng to Luoyang. The reason for the move was not just due to the Emperor's inclinations for Han culture but also economic in nature. The old capital had started its decline several decades earlier after peaking at nearly a million inhabitants in the first half of the 5th century. In 487, Pingcheng was beset with a drought and a cattle plague. In response, the government instructed its subjects to leave in search for richer fields, resulting in the departure of 50–60% of the population for the south. In comparison to Pingcheng, Luoyang was situated at the center of Northern Wei's territories connected to a network of waterways convenient for transportation.

From Wikipedia: Xianbei · History: Cultural reforms (CC BY-SA 4.0)

In 572, Emperor Wu of Northern Zhou took direct control of the imperial army and in the summer of 575, he mobilized 170,000 men for an offensive on Luoyang. After some initial successes, the expedition failed to take the Jinyong Fortress and the Emperor fell ill, forcing them to retreat after 18 days of campaigning.

From Wikipedia: Xianbei · History: Fall of Northern Qi (CC BY-SA 4.0)

In the 8th century, Turkic inscriptions used the word "Tabgatch" to refer to the Tang dynasty. This word is commonly believed to be derived from "Tuoba", serving as an attestation to the dominance of the Xianbei in northern China and their impact throughout history despite the disappearance of the Xianbei identity. The name "Tuoba" and its Turkic pronunciation as "Tabghach" became a generic Central Asian word for "China". Due to the Tang dynasty's influence in Central Asia, Central Asian states such as the Karakhanids identified their state as China to invoke its prestige. The Karakhanid rulers used the title Tamghaj (or Ṭabgâch) Khan (Turkic:the Khan of China), translated by the Arabs as Malik al-mashriq wa’l-Ṣīn (the King of China and the East). The title continued to be used among the Karakhanids even after it split into eastern and western regimes.

From Wikipedia: Xianbei · History: Legacy (CC BY-SA 4.0)

A nomadic people, the Kidarites appear to have originated in the Altai Mountains region. The terms Huns/Chionites seem to reflect the general ethnic appellation of these people, whereas Kidarites should be understood as a dynastic designation derived from the name of their king, Kidara. On Kidarite coins their rulers are depicted as beardless or clean-shaven – a feature of Altaic cultures at the time (as opposed, for example, to the Iranian cultures of South Central Asia). They may have been Oghuric speakers originally, as may have been the Chionites and the Hephthalites, before adopting the Bactrian language. The Kidarites were depicted as mounted archers on the reverse of coins. They were also known to practice artificial cranial deformation.

From Wikipedia: Kidarites · Origins (CC BY-SA 4.0)

It seems Buddhism was rather unaffected by Kidarite rule, as the religion continued to prosper. The Chinese pilgrim Fa-hsien visited the region c. 400 CE, and described a wealthy Buddhist culture. Some aspects of the Buddhist art of Gandhara seem to have incorporated Zoroastrian elements conveyed by the Kidarites at that time, such as the depiction of fire altars on the bases of numerous Buddhist sculptures.

From Wikipedia: Kidarites · Kidarite kingdom: Religion (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The Kidarites issued gold coins on the model of Kushan coinage, inscribing their own names but still claiming the Kushan heritage by using the title "Kushan". The volume of Kidarite gold coinage was nevertheless much smaller than that of the Great Kushans, probably owing to a decline of commerce and the loss of major international trade routes.

From Wikipedia: Kidarites · Kidarite kingdom: Economy (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Since the foundation of the Sasanian Empire, its rulers had demonstrated the sovereignty and power of their realm through collection of tribute, particularly from the Romans. However, the Sasanian efforts were disrupted in the early 5th century by the Kidarites, who forced Yazdegerd I (r. 399–420), Bahram V (r. 420–438), and/or Yazdegerd II (r. 438–457) to pay them tribute. Although this did not trouble the Sasanian treasury, it was nevertheless humiliating. Yazdegerd II eventually refused to pay tribute, which would later be used as the casus belli of the Kidarites, who declared war against the ruling Sasanian king Peroz I in c. 464. Peroz lacked manpower to fight, and therefore asked for financial aid by the Byzantine Empire, who declined his request.

From Wikipedia: Kidarites · Kidarite kingdom: Conflict with Sasanian emperor Peroz I and the Hephthalites (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The original culture of the Xionites and their geographical urheimat are uncertain. They appear to have originally followed animist religious beliefs, which mixed later with varieties of Buddhism and Shaivism. It is difficult to determine their ethnic composition.

From Wikipedia: Xionites · Origins and culture (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The Book of Song and Book of Liang, which are primary sources connected Rouran to the earlier Xiongnu while the Book of Wei traced the Rouran's origins back to the Donghu, generally agreed to be Proto-Mongols. Xu proposed that "the main body of the Rouran were of Xiongnu origin" and Rourans' descendants, namely Da Shiwei (aka Tatars), contained Turkic elements, besides the Mongolic Xianbei. Even so, the Xiongnu's language is still unknown and Chinese historians routinely ascribed Xiongnu origins to various nomadic groups, yet such ascriptions do not necessarily indicate the subjects' exact origins: for examples, Xiongnu ancestry was ascribed to Turkic-speaking Göktürks and Tiele as well as Para-Mongolic-speaking Kumo Xi and Khitans.

From Wikipedia: Rouran Khaganate · History: Origin (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Since the time of Shelun Khan, the khans were bestowed with additional titles at their enthronement. After 464, starting with Yucheng Khan they started to use epoch names, in imitation of the Chinese. The Rouran dignitaries of the ruling elite also adopted nicknames referring to their deeds, similar to the titles the Chinese bestowed posthumously. Kradin notes that this practice is analogous with that of later Mongolian chiefs. There appears to have been a wide circle composing the nomadic aristocracy, including elders, chieftains and military commanders. The grandees could be high or low ranking. According to Kradin, the khagan could confer titles as rewards for services rendered and outstanding deeds.

From Wikipedia: Rouran Khaganate · History: Society (CC BY-SA 4.0)

In 461, Lü Pi, Duke of Hedong, a Northern Wei general and Grand chancellor of royal Rouran descent, died in Northern Wei. The Rouran and the Hephthalites had a falling out and problems within their confederation were encouraged by Chinese agents.

From Wikipedia: Rouran Khaganate · History: Decline (CC BY-SA 4.0)