Medieval States of Arabia: Map & History

Muhammad ibn Ziyad was a descendant of Yazid, younger brother of the first Umayyad caliph Muawiyah I. In 814 he was arrested and brought to the Abbasid caliph al-Ma'mun on account of his ancestry, but his life was spared in the end. He was merely placed under surveillance and became the protégé of the caliph's minister al-Fadl ibn Sahl. Three years later a letter from the governor of Yemen arrived to Baghdad, complaining about attacks by the Ash'arite and Akkite tribes. Al-Fadl recommended that al-Ma'mun send the capable Muhammad ibn Ziyad to Tihamah in order to suppress the tribes. The situation was particularly critical since the Alids under a leader called Ibrahim al-Jazzar threatened to detach Yemen from Abbasid control at this time. Muhammad ibn Ziyad was a sworn enemy of the Alids, which made him a suitable choice for the task.

From Wikipedia: Ziyadid dynasty · Establishment (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The Yufirids again attacked in 989 and burnt Zabid. However, the Mamluk al-Husayn bin Salamah managed to save the kingdom from complete collapse. He defeated the mountain tribes and restored the Ziyadid realm to its old limits. Al-Husayn was remembered as a just and high-spirited regent who dug wells and canals and constructed roads across the kingdom. He governed until his peaceful demise in 1012. The back side of the coin was that the Ziyadid monarchs lost effective power after 981 while a succession of Mamluks held real power, which at length made for political turmoil. After al-Husayn's death, his slave, the eunuch Marjan, held power as wazir. He in turn raised two Ethiopian slaves called Nafis and Najah who received high offices in the state. According to Kamal Suleiman Salibi, the last Ziyadi ruler was murdered in 1018 and replaced by Nafis.

From Wikipedia: Ziyadid dynasty · Decline (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The origin of the name "Qarmatian" is uncertain. According to some sources, the name derives from the surname of the sect's founder, Hamdan Qarmat. The name qarmat probably comes from the Aramaic for "short-legged", "red-eyed" or "secret teacher". Other sources, however, say that the name comes from the Arabic verb قرمط (qarmaṭ), which means "to make the lines close together in writing" or "to walk with short steps". The word "Qarmatian" can also refer to a type of Arabic script.

From Wikipedia: Qarmatians · Name and origin (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The Qarmatian state had vast fruit and grain estates both on the islands and in Hasa and Qatif. Nasir Khusraw, who visited Hasa in 1051, recounted that these estates were cultivated by some thirty thousand Ethiopian slaves. He mentions that the people of Hasa were exempt from taxes. Those impoverished or in debt could obtain a loan until they put their affairs in order. No interest was taken on loans, and token lead money was used for all local transactions. The Qarmathian state had a powerful and long-lasting legacy. This is evidenced by a coin known as Tawila, minted around 920 by one of the Qarmathian rulers, and which was still in circulation in Hasa early in the twentieth century.Some scholars have claimed that the society in which the Qarmatians lived could be described as proto-socialist or utopian socialist, a view that was also upheld by state ideologues in South Yemen.

From Wikipedia: Qarmatians · History: Qarmatian society (CC BY-SA 4.0)

According to Farhad Daftary, the catalyst of the collapse of Qarmatian movement as a whole happened in the year 931, when Abu Tahir al-Janabi, the Qarmatian leader in Bahrain, handed over the reins of the state in Bahrain to Abu'l-Fadl al-Isfahani, a young Persian man who had been believed by the Qarmatians to be the Mahdi. However, Abu Tahir soon realized al-Isfahani's appointment was a disastrous mistake, after the "Mahdi" executed some nobles and insulted Muhammad and the other prophets. The incident shocked the Qarmatians and the Islamic community as a whole, and Abu Tahir ordered the youth's execution.

From Wikipedia: Qarmatians · History: Collapse (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The first Isma'ili missionaries, Ibn Hawshab and Ali ibn al-Fadl al-Jayshani, already appeared in Yemen in 881, thirty years before the establishment of the Fatimid Caliphate. Their creed was subsequently disseminated among the mountain tribes in the early 10th century. During this period Ibn al-Fadl managed to conquer San'a and the central highlands in 905, while Ibn Hawshab established himself at Shibam Kawkaban. Nevertheless, this regime was beaten by the resurgent indigenous Yu'firid dynasty in 916, after Ibn al-Fadl's death in 915.

From Wikipedia: Sulayhid dynasty · Rise (CC BY-SA 4.0)

In Yemen, despite its proximity to the African mainland, enslaved soldiers hailed from diverse origins. The presence of military slaves in the region dates back to the 1st millennium and persisted into the early modern era. At its zenith, the Himyarite Kingdom exerted significant influence over large portion of the Arabian Peninsula through its subordinate, the Kinda tribe, who acted as auxiliaries. Initially, soldiers from Abyssinia formed the majority of these military slaves during the Ziyadid era (818-1018). However, they were largely replaced by Turkish and Circassian slaves during the Ayyubid (1171–1260), Rasulid (1229–1454), and Tahirid (1454–1517) dynasties.

From Wikipedia: Najahid dynasty · Origins (CC BY-SA 4.0)

While Najah held sway over the coastal areas in southwest Yemen, his dominance on the mainland faced opposition due to the emergence of the Sulayhids, a Shia Ismail dynasty loyal to the Fatimid Caliphate, led by their founder Ali al-Sulayhi. Al-Sulayhi seized control of Sana from the Yufirids, and started directly challenging Najah's rule. According to Umara al-Yamani, he lived in dread of Najah but sought to win his favor, assuming a humble demeanor, but never desisting in his efforts against him, until he succeeded in bringing about his death. This was achieved through the act of sending him a beautiful slave-girl as a gift, who poisoned him. After Najah's death, Sulayhi captured Zabid and forced Najah's children to flee to Dahlak. Out of the children of Najah, Sa'id al-Ahwal and Jayyash were the most effective.

From Wikipedia: Najahid dynasty · Conflict with the Sulayhids (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Following his death, confusion prevailed and power was exercised by a series of ministers. He was followed by his son Fatik, born to an Indian concubine, whose reign was relatively brief and marred by a succession dispute with his brothers. This conflict persisted even after his death in 1109. Fatik was succeeded by his son al-Mansur, who fled the discord among his uncles and sought refuge and backing from the Sulayhids. Eventually, he was established in Zabīd by the Ṣulayḥids. Queen Arwa al-Sulayhi, the last Sulayhid sovereign died in 1138. After her demise, Yemen was split between several contenders. Zaydi Immamte was revived in Najran, Sa'dah, and Jawf after 72 years of absence. The Hamdanid sultans were sovereign of Sana'a and Najahid viziers were ruling Zabid independently. Mansur foiled an assassination attempt plotted by his vazir, replacing him afterward.

From Wikipedia: Najahid dynasty · Fall (CC BY-SA 4.0)

In 1077–1078, an Arab sheikh named Abdullah bin Ali Al Uyuni defeated the Qarmatians in Bahrain and al-Hasa in the Siege of Hofuf with the help of the Seljuq Turks of Baghdad and founded the Uyunid dynasty.

From Wikipedia: Uyunid dynasty · History: Rise (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The Uyunids were Muslim, sources mention they were Shia. According to Nakash, the populations of Bahrain, Hasa, and Qatif, may have accepted Twelver Shi'ism during this period. A study by Nayef al-Shera'an stated they were Shia based on their coins, which he said were exhibited at the British Museum. The study also mentions that no reliable sources support that they were Sunni. On the other hand, Iraqi Sunni historian Safa Khulusi said they were Sunni, shortly before stating he had a "strong feeling" that poet Ali bin al Mugrab Al Uyuni was a Zaydi Shia.

From Wikipedia: Uyunid dynasty · Religion (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Both the Sulayhid & Zurayid dynasties were founded by Ismaili Hamdani religious dais, who preached Ismailism with the support of the Fatimid Caliphate (at that time encompassing North Africa, Sicily & parts of the Levant), they were also tribally affiliated with Hamdan, competing with the Sunni Himyarite dynasties & rising Zaydi state in Sa'ada, this Ismaili connection eventually lead to the demise of the Hamdani Ismaili dynasties, as they were replaced by the Sunni & Zaydi dynasties, forcing the Hamdan clans to convert to Zaydi or Sunni sects (with the exception of the Haraz & Najran Ismaili enclaves).

From Wikipedia: Zurayid dynasty · The Sulayhid connection: Ismaili Hamdani common origin (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Smith, G. Rex (1987). "Politische Geschichte des islamischen Jemen bis zur ersten türkischen Invasion (1 bis 945 Hidschra = 633 bis 1538 n. Chr.)" [Political History of Islamic Yemen until the First Turkish Invasion (1 to 945 AH = 633 to 1538 AD)]. In Daum, Werner (ed.). Jemen. 3000 Jahre Kunst und Kultur des glücklichen Arabien [Yemen. 3000 Years of Art and Civilisation in Arabia Felix]. Innsbruck and Frankfurt a.M.: Pinguin. pp. 136–154. ISBN 3-7016-2251-5.

From Wikipedia: Zurayid dynasty · Literature (CC BY-SA 4.0)

During the first two decades of Ayyubid over-lordship Zurayid influence (remnants of Zurayid-Sulayhid dynasties) surfaced in the highlands enclaves, until it, too, was eventually suppressed in about 1193 with the surrender of the Damloa castle in Al-Hujariah.

From Wikipedia: Zurayid dynasty · The End of the Zurayid Dynasty (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Their name is derived from their first ruler Ali bin Mahdi who was born in Tihama. Ali bin Mahdi in his turn, traced his ancestry back to the ancient kings of Himyar. He was a religious and wide-travelled figure who performed the hajj every year and met scholars from all over the Muslim world. In 1136–1142 Ali bin Mahdi propagated his religious ideas in the Tihama lowland which at that time was ruled by the Najahids of Zabid. The Najahid queen 'Alam was initially attracted by his teachings and even exempted him and his followers from paying the kharaj. Building up a power base, he gathered an army in 1143 and attacked his benefactors. He made efforts to conquer the town al-Kadrā north of Zabid. This, however, failed. Ali and his followers withdrew to the mountains but were allowed back to the Najahid realm in 1146 at the insistence of queen 'Alam.

From Wikipedia: Mahdids · History: Conquest of the Tihama (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Smith, G. Rex (1987). "Politische Geschichte des islamischen Jemen bis zur ersten türkischen Invasion (1 bis 945 Hidschra = 633 bis 1538 n. Chr.)" [Political History of Islamic Yemen until the First Turkish Invasion (1 to 945 AH = 633 to 1538 AD)]. In Daum, Werner (ed.). Jemen. 3000 Jahre Kunst und Kultur des glücklichen Arabien [Yemen. 3000 Years of Art and Civilisation in Arabia Felix]. Innsbruck: Pinguin. pp. 136–154. ISBN 3-7016-2251-5.

From Wikipedia: Mahdids · Literature (CC BY-SA 4.0)

After the early days of Islam, the tribes in the interior of Oman were led by Imams, who held both spiritual and temporal power.

From Wikipedia: Nabhani dynasty · Background (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Oman had an elected Imam and a hereditary Nabhani sultan from the 15th century into the 17th century, with the Imams gaining the ascendancy.

From Wikipedia: Nabhani dynasty · Decline and fall (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The genesis of the dynasty is disputed, with Rasulids being variously considered to be of Ghassanid Arab or Oghuz Turkic origin. Many modern scholars consider the Rasulids to be of Turkic origin and that they descended from Oghuz Turks, such as G.R. Smith, C. E. Bosworth, Roxani Eleni Margariti, Peter B. Golden, Jane Hatheway, Nile Green, and Daniel Martin Varisco. The Rasulids themselves claimed to be of Ghassanid Arab descent and supported genealogical works to back this claim. Some modern authors, such as Robert Stookey, have accepted this claim of Arab ancestry.

From Wikipedia: Rasulid dynasty · Origin (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The Rasulid era is often considered one of the most brilliant in the history of Yemen. While the history of this region has usually been characterized by deep political and religious divisions, the extent of territory that the Rasulids ruled would not be superseded until (briefly) in the seventeenth century. The southern coast of Arabia up to Dhofar was kept under loose control. Rasulid influence stretched as far as Zafan near Salalah in Oman, where a side-branch of the family governed for a while.

From Wikipedia: Rasulid dynasty · State and economy (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Several Rasulid sultans were culturally prominent, being men of letters who wrote literature and even treatises. Thus al-Afdal Abbas (r. 1363–1377) wrote an extensive compendium with passages about matters of practical utility, intellectual interest, and entertainment, Fusul majmua fi'l-anwa' wa 'l-zuru' wa 'l-hisad. His son al-Ashraf Isma'il (r. 1377–1401) authored a general history of Yemen. Most of the rulers built mosques and madrasas, embellishing Ta'izz and other cities with fine buildings. Among the most well-known monuments are al-Muzaffar Mosque (or Muzaffariyya Mosque) from the thirteenth century and the Ashrafiyya Mosque from the fourteenth century, both in Ta'izz. These monuments were inspired by models from places like Egypt and Syria and broke with the older Yemeni style of architecture. Coins were struck by all the sultans in the period c. 1236–1438.

From Wikipedia: Rasulid dynasty · Culture (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Al-Ahsa is part of the region known historically for its high skill in tailoring, especially in making bisht, a traditional men's cloak. Al-Ahsa was one of the few areas in the Arabian Peninsula in which rice was grown. In 1938, petroleum deposits were discovered near Dammam, resulting in the rapid modernization of the region. By the early 1960s, oil production levels reached 1 million barrels (160,000 m3) per day. Today, Al-Ahsa is home to the largest conventional oil field in the world, the Ghawar Field.

From Wikipedia: Al-Ahsa Oasis · Economy and infrastructure (CC BY-SA 4.0)