The Sixteen Kingdoms (simplified Chinese: 十六国; traditional Chinese: 十六國; pinyin: Shíliù Guó), less commonly the Sixteen States, was a period in Chinese history from AD 304 to 439 when the political order of the Jin dynasty (266–420) in northern China fragmented into a series of short-lived dynastic states. Most of these states were founded by the "Five Barbarians" – Xiongnu, Xianbei, Di, Jie, Qiang – non-Han peoples from northern and western China who launched the rebellions that toppled the Jin court in Luoyang in 311 and Chang'an (modern-day Xi'an) in 316, ending the Western Jin dynasty (266–316). Some of these peoples, notably the Xiongnu of Shanxi and the Di of Guanzhong, had lived in China for generations and were highly sinicized. Others such as the Tuoba and Murong Xianbei tribes migrated from China's periphery into Central Plains in the ensuing decades to compete for political supremacy over northern China. All of these states took on Han-style dynastic names and most claimed as having the Mandate of Heaven to rule all of China. They frequently fought against one another and the Jin, which continued to rule southern China from Jiankang (modern-day Nanjing) as the Eastern Jin dynasty (317-420).
Due to fierce competition among the states and internal political instability, the kingdoms of this era were mostly short-lived.
Each state in its own colour. Move the timeline to see which existed in any year from 306 AD to 440 AD; select a territory to read about it. Borders: Cliopatria / Seshat (CC BY 4.0).
Since the Western Han dynasty (202 BC–9 AD), the non-Han peoples of the northern steppe and western highlands had been resettling into northern China. Along the frontiers in the north, the Chinese court employed a policy of recruiting surrendered tribes to serve as auxiliaries to defend against attacks from nomadic enemies, such as the Xianbei confederation. The Wuhuan tribes submitted as Chinese tributaries in the northeast, and in 50 AD, the Eastern Han dynasty (25–220) established the Southern Xiongnu vassal state in northern Bing province. In the northwest, western herders known as the Qiang and Di were brought in, predominantly to work as farmers and slaves in the Guanzhong basin. As migrants, these people lived among the ethnic Han and were sinicized to different degrees while retaining their tribal affiliations.
Through generational exposure and cooperation with the ethnic Han scholar gentry, the Sixteen Kingdoms heavily adopted the Chinese style of imperial governance and customs. Many of their rulers claimed the imperial titles of Emperor (帝; Dì) or King (王; Wáng), used era names and appointed their followers to official positions from the imperial Chinese system such as Grand Chancellor (丞相; Chéngxiàng) and Grand Tutor (太傅; Tàifù). Additionally, the imperial title of Heavenly King (天王; Tiānwáng) was introduced and widely used during this period as a way for rulers to acknowledge that they still lack the prerequisites of an Emperor while effectively acting as one.
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Many of the Sixteen Kingdoms also upheld separate governance between the Han and non-Chinese.
After Liu Cong's death in 318, a failed coup was launch which saw his successor and most of the Han imperial family wiped out. The empire soon split between Liu Yao in the west and the powerful general, Shi Le in the east. Shi Le was an ethnic Jie, a group that emerged from the Southern Xiongnu in Bing province. Their exact origins is still disputed, with some theorizing that they were of Central Asian stock whose ancestors became subordinate tribes to the Xiongnu Shi Le initially worked as an indentured farm laborer before joining Liu Yuan's rebellion, and during his stint as a Han general, he gained considerable power over the Hebei region, ruling in all but name. In 319, he founded the Later Zhao (319–351), and after a decade-long confrontation, he decisively defeated Liu Yao at the Battle of Luoyang and destroyed the Han-Zhao in 329, placing most of northern China under his control.
Chengdu skyline with mountains, the highest peak in the picture is the main peak of Mount Siguniang at 6,250 meters above sea level, Yaomei Peak. Taken from Longquan Mountain in ChengduFISU · CC BY 3.0 · Commons
Cheng-Han (simplified Chinese: 成汉; traditional Chinese: 成漢; pinyin: Chéng Hàn; 303 or 304 – 347) was a dynastic state of China listed as one of the Sixteen Kingdoms in Chinese historiography. Ruled by the Li clan of the Ba Di people, its territory was based in what is modern-day Sichuan Province, China. The name Cheng-Han collectively refers to the state of Cheng (成; Chéng) or Dacheng (大成; Dàchéng), founded by Li Xiong in 304 (or by Li Te in 303) and the state of Han (漢; Hàn) founded by Li Shou in 338. The state is also less commonly known as Later Shu (後蜀; Hòu Shǔ).
The Li clan were originally Zong people from Baxi Commandery (巴西郡; in present-day Nanchong, Sichuan) in present-day Sichuan. When the Han chancellor, Cao Cao conquered Hanzhong in 215, Li Hu (李虎) led his family to surrender and migrated to Lüeyang Commandery (略陽郡; in modern Tianshui, Gansu), where they mingled with the local Di tribes. Their people became known as the Ba Di, with “Ba” referring to their ancestral homeland. In 296, the Di chieftain, Qi Wannian, led a tribal rebellion against the Western Jin dynasty. The rebellion devastated the Guanzhong region, creating an influx of Han and non-Han refugees fleeing south into Hanzhong and Sichuan.
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Among the refugees, the Li clan grew to prominence after the Inspector of Yi, Zhao Xin rebelled in 299. They joined him and served as key generals, but later overthrew him and took the provincial capital, Chengdu in 300.
The Han-Zhao (simplified Chinese: 汉赵; traditional Chinese: 漢趙; pinyin: Hàn Zhào; 304–329 AD), or Former Zhao (simplified Chinese: 前赵; traditional Chinese: 前趙; pinyin: Qián Zhào), was a dynastic state of China ruled by the Liu (Luandi) clan of Chuge-Xiongnu ethnicity during the Sixteen Kingdoms period of Chinese history. In Chinese historiography, it was given two conditional state titles: the Northern Han (北漢; Běi Hàn), for the state proclaimed in 304 by Liu Yuan; and the Former Zhao (前趙; Qián Zhào), for the state proclaimed in 319 by Liu Yao.
For civil administration, the Han-Zhao regime adopted many central positions from the Chinese bureaucratic system such as chancellor and grand marshal. Meanwhile, they also introduced a traditional Xiongnu structure in regards to military organization and aristocratic governance. After elevating himself to King of Han, Liu Yuan deferred the role of Grand Chanyu to Liu Cong, creating a new administrative institution known as the Chanyu Platform (單于台; chanyu tai). The Chanyu Platform held military power and was tasked with managing the affairs of the minority ethnic tribes. Despite their authority, the Grand Chanyu was ultimately a subordinate role and was positioned lower than the emperor in the ruling hierarchy. The dual administration of the emperor and Chanyu Platform helped to reinforce the segregation between the Hu and Han people.
The Former Liang (Chinese: 前涼; pinyin: Qián Liáng; 301–376) was a dynastic state, and one of the Sixteen Kingdoms, in Chinese history. It was founded by Zhang Shi of the Han Chinese Zhang family. Its territories included present-day Gansu and parts of Ningxia, Shaanxi, Qinghai and Xinjiang.
All rulers of the Former Liang remained largely titularly under the court of the Eastern Jin dynasty as the Duke of Xiping except Zhang Zuo who proclaimed himself emperor (or king).
The founding of the Former Liang can be traced back to Zhang Gui. He was a Han Chinese official under the Western Jin dynasty who claimed descent from Zhang Er, the King of Changshan during the Chu-Han Contention. Zhang Gui was appointed as provincial inspector by the imperial court in 301.
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Along with his two sons, Zhang Mao and Zhang Shi, he made Guzang (姑臧, in modern Wuwei, Gansu) his main base and worked closely with the local population to ensure the dynastic rule of his family. Due to the stability in the area, Former Liang became a refuge for those fleeing the chaos of the heartland. Zhang Gui also developed the region by promoting agriculture and establishing new schools. Despite his influence in Liang, Zhang Gui never declared independence and remained a Jin official up to his death in 314.
Zhang Jun died in 346 and was succeeded by his son Zhang Chonghua. Relations between Former Liang and Later Zhao had soured near the end of Zhang Jun's reign, and shortly after Chonghua ascended, Zhao launched an invasion on Liang. The Liang general, Xie Ai was able to repel the invaders, but territory south of the Yellow River were still lost. During and after the Later Zhao collapse in the early 350s, Chonghua attempted to reclaim their lost territory and expand eastward, but his efforts were frustrated by the new and rising Former Qin dynasty. His death in 353 began a lengthy period of internal turmoil within the state as he left behind his 10-year-old son Zhang Yaoling on the throne.
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Shortly after ascending, Yaoling was deposed by his uncle and regent, Zhang Zuo. In 354, Zhang Zuo declared himself emperor (or king), being the only Former Liang ruler to fully reject Jin's suzerainty.
337 CE – 370 CE · Capital: Jicheng (棘城) (337–342), Longcheng (342–350), Jicheng (薊城) (350–357), Yecheng (357–370) · 772,045 km²
Peking and Nanking Ancient and Modern (I)Albert Herrmann & Georg Westermann · Public domain · Commons
Yan, known in historiography as the Former Yan (Chinese: 前燕; pinyin: Qián Yān; 337–370), was a dynastic state of China ruled by the Murong clan of the Xianbei during the Sixteen Kingdoms period. From Liaoning, the Former Yan later conquered and ruled over Hebei, Shaanxi, Shandong and Henan at its peak. They were notably the first of several Xianbei states to have establish their rule over the Central Plains. The prefix of "Former" is used in historiography to distinguish them from the other Yan states that came after them, such as Later Yan.
The Murong, named after their chieftain of the same name, were a Xianbei tribe under Tanshihuai's confederation during the late-2nd century. As the confederation disintegrated, they resettled themselves around the Liaoxi region, where they feuded with the neighbouring Duan and Yuwen tribes. During the Three Kingdoms period, when the Cao Wei commander, Sima Yi, campaigned against Gongsun Yuan in 237, the Murong offered their assistance and, after the campaign, they were allowed to move into northern Liaodong. They became vassals to the Wei and then their successor, the Western Jin dynasty.
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In 285, Murong Hui was installed as the new chieftain of his tribe. Although Hui rebelled against Jin shortly after ascending, he resubmitted in 289 and was given the office of Commander of the Xianbei.
337 CE – 352 CE · Capital: Xiangguo (319–335, 350–351), Yecheng (335–350) · 662,078 km²
Zhao, briefly known officially as Wei (衛) in 350 AD, known in historiography as the Later Zhao (simplified Chinese: 后赵; traditional Chinese: 後趙; pinyin: Hòu Zhào; 319–351) or Shi Zhao (石趙), was a dynasty of China ruled by the Shi family of Jie ethnicity during the Sixteen Kingdoms period. Among the Sixteen Kingdoms, the Later Zhao was the second in territorial size to the Former Qin dynasty that once unified northern China under Fu Jian.
In the wake of the Southern Xiongnu decline in the 3rd century AD, a people known as the Jie people became one of the various "Hu" peoples (胡; a term which roughly translates to "barbarian" and was frequently used during this period for people of Xiongnu background) that emerged in the northern Chinese province of Bing. Among the Jie was a chieftain named Shi Le, who resided in Shangdang Commandery in modern-day Shanxi. When a great famine broke out in his home province that displaced many of the Jie and Hu in 303, the provincial inspector had these people captured and sold into slavery for military funds. As a result, the Jie and Hu became scattered throughout the eastern regions of Hebei and Shandong.
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Shi Le himself was sold to a wealthy merchant in Shandong, but very soon he was able to attain his freedom.
Xie Fei and Wei Mengbian were two mechanical engineers under the Later Zhao who built a south-pointing chariot (also called south-pointing carriage), a directional compass vehicle that apparently did not use magnetic principle, but was operated by use of differential gears (which apply an equal amount of torque to driving wheels rotating at different speeds), or a similar angular differential principle. For the great ingenuity shown in the construction of the device, Shi Hu granted Xie Fei the noble title of hou without land possessions and rewarded him generously.
Shi Hu died not long after, and Shi Shi was immediately challenged upon his ascension. His half-brother, Shi Zun conspired with the generals to depose him, and among these generals was Shi Hu's adopted Han Chinese grandson, Shi Min. Shi Min was a powerful commander and a favourite grandson of Shi Hu, who had adopted his father Shi Zhan, originally named Ran Zhan. To convince him into joining the plot, Shi Zun offered Shi Min the position of Crown Prince, which he accepted. Just a month into his reign, Shi Zun's forces overthrew Shi Shi at Ye. However, after ascending the throne, Shi Zun reneged on his promise and appointed another nephew as the Crown Prince. Shi Zun even planned to assassinate Shi Min, but when the plan leaked, Shi Min led his troops to depose him.
Qin, known as the Former Qin and Fu Qin (苻秦) in historiography, was a dynastic state of China ruled by the Fu (Pu) clan of the Di peoples during the Sixteen Kingdoms period. Founded in the wake of the Later Zhao dynasty's collapse in 351 AD, it completed the unification of northern China in 376 AD during the reign of Fu Jiān (Emperor Xuanzhao), being the only state out of the Sixteen Kingdoms to achieve this. Its capital was Chang'an up to Fu Jiān's death in 385 AD. The prefix "Former" is used to distinguish it from the Later Qin and Western Qin dynasties that were founded later.
The Fu clan were members of the Di people of Linwei County (臨渭縣), Lüeyang Commandery (略陽郡; in modern Tianshui, Gansu) and originally had the surname Pu (蒲). They claimed descent from the legendary Youhu tribe (有扈), which records claimed once dwelled near Chang'an during the ancient Xia dynasty. During the fall of Western Jin, many refugees fled to join them, prompting their chieftain, Pu Hong to declare independence by proclaiming himself the Duke of Lüeyang. He became a vassal after the Former Zhao dynasty entered the Guanzhong region, and later submitted to the Jie-led Later Zhao dynasty after they vanquished the former in 329. When Shi Hu seized power in 333, Pu Hong convinced him to resettle the various Di and Qiang tribes in Guanzhong to live around the capital region in Xiangguo.
The Eastern Jin was the last state in the way of Former Qin's unification of China. Wang Meng died in 375, and before his death, he warned Fu Jiān against going to war with Jin. He instead advised him to focus on consolidating his territory, as many of his conquered people, particularly the Qiang and Xianbei, were not fully loyal to his regime. However, Fu Jiān did not listen, and to address Wang Meng's latter concern, he relocated many of the Qiang and Xianbei people to live near the capital while moving the Di to newly-controlled territories, hoping to integrate the various ethnic groups.
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In 378, Former Qin forces besieged Xiangyang and attacked Pengcheng. Although Xiangyang fell to Qin in 379, the assault on Pengcheng was defeated by the Jin general, Xie Xuan.
In 384, as Former Qin was recovering from the recent defeat, the Xianbei general and previous prince of Former Yan, Murong Chui, rebelled in the northeast, founding the Later Yan dynasty with the aim of restoring his family's former state. Chui's rebellion encouraged his nephew, Murong Hong, to revolt around Chang'an, and their state was known as the Western Yan. Fu Jiān attempted to quell the uprisings, but soon, his Qiang general, Yao Chang also rebelled north of the Wei River, founding the Later Qin dynasty. Fu Jiān was besieged in Chang'an by Western Yan forces and later fled the city due to the food shortages in 385. However, he was then captured by Yao Chang, who had him executed after he refused to formally pass the throne.
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Rebellions continued to break out in other parts of the empire.
The Later Liang (simplified Chinese: 后凉; traditional Chinese: 後凉; pinyin: Hòu Liáng; 386–403) was a dynastic state of China and one of the Sixteen Kingdoms in Chinese history. It was founded by the Lü family of the Di ethnicity and given the prefix of "Later" in historiography to distinguish it with the Former Liang dynasty before them and the three Liang states (Southern, Northern and Western) that emerged during their collapse.
All rulers of the Later Liang proclaimed themselves "Heavenly King" (Tian Wang).
Lü Guang's family claimed descent from Lü Wenhe (呂文和), a Han Chinese from Pei Commandery who fled to Lüeyang Commandery (略陽郡; in modern Tianshui, Gansu) to escape persecution during the reign of Emperor Wen of Han (180–157 BC). The Lü integrated into the Di people of Lüeyang as chieftains and later served the Di-led Former Qin dynasty when they first established in 351. Lü Guang became a prominent general under Qin, and his father, Lü Polou was a key figure in supporting Fu Jian to the throne.
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In 383, Lü Guang was ordered to lead an expedition to the Western Regions. In 384, he conquered Kucha, where he captured and met the Buddhist monk, Kumārajīva. He initially intended to settle down in the Western Regions, but at the advice of Kumārajīva, he decided to return to Former Qin with his plunders.
In 400, Lü Guang declared himself retired emperor while his eldest son to his wife, Lü Shao succeeded him as Heavenly King. However, shortly after Lü Guang died, the eldest among all of Lü Guang's son, Lü Zuan, launched a coup and forced Lü Shao to commit suicide. During his reign, Lü Zuan attacked Southern Liang and Northern Liang but to no avail. In 401, his cousin, Lü Chao had him assassinated and passed the throne to his own brother, Lü Long.
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Soon after taking power, Lü Long had many of the local leaders killed. The situation in Later Liang soon became known to the Later Qin in the east, who then laid siege onto Guzang and forced Lü Long to submit as a vassal. Later Qin bestowed Lü Long the title of Duke of Jiankang and allowed him to remain at Guzang, although they also brought back with them Kumārajīva, who had been living as a captive under Later Liang.
ChinaTrip2005-110The original uploader was Bobak at English Wikipedia. · CC BY 2.5 · Commons
Qin, known in historiography as the Later Qin (simplified Chinese: 后秦; traditional Chinese: 後秦; pinyin: Hòuqín; 384–417 AD) or Yao Qin (姚秦), was a dynastic state of China ruled by the Yao clan of Qiang ethnicity during the Sixteen Kingdoms period in northern China. As the only Qiang-led state among the Sixteen Kingdoms, it was most known for its propagation of Buddhism under its second ruler, Yao Xing, who sponsored the Madhyamakin monk, Kumārajīva to translate Sanskrit Buddhist text into Chinese.
The Yao clan was from Nan’an Commandery (南安郡; southeast of present-day Longxi County, Gansu) and claimed descent from the Shaodang Qiang (燒當羌). Their chieftain, Yao Kehui (姚柯回), assisted Cao Wei during their conquest of Shu Han, and was later appointed Commander of the Western Qiang for his merits. His son, Yao Yizhong succeeded him, and during the Disaster of Yongjia that befell the Western Jin dynasty, he occupied Yumei (榆眉; east of present-day Qianyang County, Shaanxi) and welcomed refugees under his wing.
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Yizhong later submitted to the Han-Zhao dynasty, and then the Later Zhao dynasty, where he associated himself with the commander, Shi Hu. After Shi Hu seized power in 333, he followed Yizhong's advice of relocating the powerful Di and Qiang families in the Guanzhong to live around the capital, Xiangguo.
Upon reaching its peak, the Later Qin quickly declined due to pressure from its own vassals and the Eastern Jin. Yao Xing ceded twelves commaderies around the Han river at the request of Jin's paramount authority, Liu Yu, in exchange for peace, while giving up his holdings in the Hexi to the Southern Liang. In 407, he received Southern Yan and Western Shu's submissions, but lost Chouchi's allegicance to Jin. Worst of all, however, was the rebellion of the Xiongnu general, Helian Bobo, in the Ordos. Bobo established the Helian Xia, and for many years, led a war against Later Qin that drained their resources and killed many key generals. In 409, the Western Qin was revived in the Longxi, further reducing Later Qin's territory.
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When Liu Yu led an expedition to conquer Southern Yan in 409, Yao Xing was powerless to stop him, leading to Southern Yan's demise in 410.
387 CE – 409 CE · Capital: Zhongshan (386–397), Longcheng (397–409) · 502,851 km²
Yan, known in historiography as the Later Yan (simplified Chinese: 后燕; traditional Chinese: 後燕; pinyin: Hòu Yān; 384 – 407 or 409), was a dynastic state of China ruled by the Xianbei people during the era of Sixteen Kingdoms.
The prefix "Later" to distinguish them from the Former Yan before them and other Yan states from the period. Historiographers also consider the Former Yan and Later Yan as separate states despite both being ruled by the same imperial family, and the Later Yan's founder, Murong Chui, had intended his state to be a restoration.
Murong Chui was the son of Murong Huang, the founder of the Xianbei Former Yan dynasty, and a key military general; in 369, he saved the state from ruin by defeating an Eastern Jin invasion led by Huan Wen at the Battle of Fangtou. On the other hand, he was also a subject of suspicion within the imperial family. After defeating Huan Wen, the regent, his uncle Murong Ping became apprehensive of his newfound reputation and wanted to kill him, prompting Chui to flee to the Di-led Former Qin dynasty.
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In the next few years, Qin conquered Yan and reunified northern China. Although Qin's ruler, Fu Jian treated him favourably, Chui harboured ambitions to restore his state. He fought for Qin in campaigns against the Eastern Jin and was one of the few officials who supported the ill-fated invasion of 383, which saw the Qin's disastrous defeat at the Battle of Fei River.
Previously in 386, to counter Western Yan, Later Yan allied themselves with the Tuoba-Xianbei state of Northern Wei. Initially, Wei relied on Later Yan's assistance against their rival tribes, but an incident in 391 led to relations breaking down. Wei aligned themselves with Western Yan, and hostilities continued even after Western Yan fell. In 395, to further elevate his Crown Prince, he sent Murong Bao to lead a force of around 90,000 strong on a punitive expedition against Wei, but the campaign ended in disaster as the Yan was heavily routed at the Battle of Canhe Slope, with Bao barely escaping with his life. In 396, Murong Chui personally led a campaign against Wei, but despite early success, became extremely ill and was forced to withdraw. He soon died and was succeeded by Murong Bao.
The Western Qin (Chinese: 西秦; pinyin: Xī Qín; 385–400, 409–431 AD) was a dynastic state of China ruled by the Qifu clan of Xianbei ethnicity during the era of Sixteen Kingdoms. All rulers of the Western Qin declared themselves "wang", which can be translated as either "king" or "prince." They ruled an area corresponding to modern-day southwestern Gansu in Northwest China, also known as the Longxi region, along with parts of northeastern Qinghai in the later years.
The Qifu tribe was a western branch of Xianbei that resettled around the Longxi region during the beginning of the Western Jin dynasty around 265. Their ancestor was Rufu (如弗), who led the Qifu and three other tribes, Siyin (斯引), Chulian (出連) and Chilu (叱盧) from the north of the Gobi Desert to move south to the Yin Mountains. It is believed that the Qifu had strong connections to the Gaoche people (also known as Dingling); the Chilu were also known as the Tulu (吐盧), one of the twelves surnames of the Gaoche, and during the Western Qin period, there were several officials who had the Dingling surnames of Zhai (翟), Wuyin (屋引), Yizhan (乙旃) and Chilu. The name "Qifu" (乞伏) may have even come from the Gaoche surname, "Qifuli" (泣伏利).
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The Qifu and their followers eventually left the Yin Mountains to live north of the Hetao region.
387 CE – 393 CE · Capital: Chang'an (385–386), Zhangzi (386–394) · 116,090 km²
ChinaTrip2005-110The original uploader was Bobak at English Wikipedia. · CC BY 2.5 · Commons
Yan, known in historiography as the Western Yan (Chinese: 西燕; pinyin: Xī Yān; 384–394) was a dynastic state of China ruled by the Xianbei ethnicity. The dynasty existed during the era of Sixteen Kingdoms, but it is not counted among the 16. It was founded by Murong Hong in 384 in the aftermath of the Former Qin's defeat by the Eastern Jin in the Battle of Fei River, with the stated intent of permitting the Xianbei, whom the Former Qin's emperor Fu Jiān had relocated to Former Qin's capital region after destroying the Former Yan in 370.
After the fall of Former Yan, the last emperor Murong Wei and his brothers were relocated near the Former Qin capital, Chang'an, where they were allowed to serve as military generals and officials. Murong Hong was made Administrator of Beidi while Murong Chong was appointed Administrator of Pingyang. As part of Qin's plan to integrate the various tribes with each other, many Xianbei from the east were resettled in the Guanzhong region, with around 40,000 of them at the time of Former Yan's demise.
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In 383, Former Qin suffered a devastating defeat to the Eastern Jin dynasty at the Battle of Fei River. With the Qin exposed, Murong Wei's uncle, Murong Chui restored the state as the Later Yan in Hebei in 384. When news of the restoration reached Beidi, Murong Hong fled east of Tong Pass and gathered the Xianbei.
Though Murong Yong was a distant relative of Murong Wei, being the grandson of Murong Yun (慕容運), the uncle of Former Yan's founder Murong Huang, his proclamation threatened the legitimacy of Later Yan, as there were now two states claiming to be the successor of Former Yan. After several princes defected to Later Yan, Murong Yong had the descendants of Murong Chui and Murong Jun, Former Yan's second ruler and Murong Wei's father, all killed.
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Murong Yong ruled Shanxi for roughly nine years, during which he made little effort to expand. He briefly fought with Later Qin and tried to capture Luoyang from Eastern Jin, but was ultimately unsuccessful. In 392, the Dingling-led Zhai Wei state requested reinforcements from Western Yan as they were under attack by Later Yan, but Yong failed to respond and allowed them to fall.
397 CE – 440 CE · Capital: Jiankang (397–398), Zhangye (398–412), Guzang (412–439), Jiuquan (440–441), Dunhuang (441–442) · 119,670 km²
view from the AViko factory in China to the mountains. (According to other sources, the factory is Liuba Town (六坝镇 (民乐县)), Minle County, Zhangye City, Gansu, China).Elmschrat · CC BY-SA 3.0 · Commons
The Northern Liang (Chinese: 北涼; pinyin: Běi Liáng; 397–439) was a dynastic state of China and one of the Sixteen Kingdoms in Chinese history. It was ruled by the Juqu (沮渠) family of Lushuihu ethnicity, though they are sometimes categorized as Xiongnu in some historiographies. Although Duan Ye of Han ethnicity was initially enthroned as the Northern Liang ruler with support from the Juqu clan, Duan was subsequently overthrown in 401 and Juqu Mengxun was proclaimed monarch.
All rulers of the Northern Liang proclaimed themselves "wang" (translatable as either "prince" or "king").
For most of its existence, the Northern Liang dynasty was ruled by the Juqu house of Lushuihu ethnicity. The Lushuihu, or "Lu River Barbarians" were an ethnic group whose origin is still debated by scholars today. Theories range from them being a branch of the Xiongnu people, to them being descendants of the Lesser Yuezhi that intermingled with the Qiang. The Juqu, in particular, were a Lushuihu tribe based in Linsong Commandery (臨松郡; in modern-day Zhangye, Gansu). Their ancestors once served under the Xiongnu empire under the title of "Juqu" of the Right of Xiongnu (匈奴左沮渠), which they then adopted as their family name. The Juqu eventually submitted to the Han dynasty, and centuries later found themselves serving under the Di-led Later Liang dynasty.
The Juqu were strong propagators of Buddhism, and it was during the Northern Liang that the first Buddhist cave shrine sites appear in Gansu Province. The two most famous cave sites are Tiantishan ("Celestial Ladder Mountain"), which was south of the Northern Liang capital at Yongcheng, and Wenshushan ("Manjusri's Mountain"), halfway between Yongcheng and Dunhuang. Maijishan lies more or less on a main route connecting China proper and Central Asia (approximately 150 miles (240 km) west of modern Xi'an), just south of the Weihe (Wei River). It had the additional advantage of located not too distant from a main route that also ran N-S to Chengdu and the Indian subcontinent. The Northern Liang also built and decorated the first decorated Mogao Caves (caves 268, 272 and 275) from 419 to 439 CE until the Northern Wei invasion.
The Liang dynasty (Chinese: 梁朝; pinyin: Liáng Cháo), alternatively known as the Southern Liang (Chinese: 南梁; pinyin: Nán Liáng) or Xiao Liang (Chinese: 蕭梁; pinyin: Xiāo Liáng) in historiography, was an imperial dynasty of China and the third of the four Southern dynasties during the Northern and Southern dynasties period. It was preceded by the Southern Qi dynasty and succeeded by the Chen dynasty. The rump state of Western Liang existed until it was conquered in 587 AD by the Sui dynasty.
Wulived 464–549 CEUnknown authorUnknown author · Public domain · Commons
Government, Society and Religion
Government
Monarchy
Coins, Currency and Symbols
Currency
Chinese cash coins, (Taiqing Fengle cash coins)
Achievements and Monuments
The Liang is the best represented of the Northern and Southern Dynasties in terms of surviving written material. It was a period of brilliant literary accomplishments and produced important texts like the official histories of the Liu Song and Southern Qi dynasties, the literary anthology Wenxuan, the poetry anthology Yutai xinyong, the literary criticism works Wenxin diaolong and Shi pin, and Huang Kan's commentary on the Lunyu.
Tombs of a number of members of the ruling Xiao family, with their sculptural ensembles, in various states of preservation, are located near Nanjing.
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The best surviving example of the Liang dynasty's monumental statuary is perhaps the ensemble of the Tomb of Xiao Xiu (475–518), a brother of Emperor Wu, located in Qixia District east of Nanjing.
402 CE – 409 CE · Capital: Huatai (398–399), Guanggu (399–410) · 152,855 km²
Yan, known in historiography as the Southern Yan (Chinese: 南燕; pinyin: Nán Yān; 398–410), was a dynastic state of China ruled by the Murong clan of the Xianbei during the era of Sixteen Kingdoms. Its founder Murong De (Emperor Xianwu) was a son of Murong Huang (Emperor Wenming) and brother of Murong Jun (Emperor Jingzhao) and Murong Chui (Emperor Chengwu), and therefore was an imperial prince of both the Former Yan and Later Yan dynasties.
All rulers of the Southern Yan declared themselves "emperors".
Murong De was the son of Murong Huang, the founder of the Former Yan dynasty. He was an accomplished military general for the Former Yan, then the Di-led Former Qin after they conquered Yan in 370, and finally the Later Yan, a restoration of the Former Yan founded by his brother, Murong Chui. Under Later Yan, De was trusted by Chui as a key advisor in his administration, and after Chui's son, Murong Bao, ascended the throne in 396, he was made to overlook the southern empire from Ye.
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However, soon after Bao's succession, the Northern Wei launched a large-scale invasion of Later Yan. The Central Plains was quickly overran by Wei, and Murong Bao was forced to abandon his capital, Zhongshan (中山, in modern Baoding, Hebei) and evacuate to Longcheng in Liaoning.
407 CE – 409 CE · Capital: Dunhuang (400–405, 420–421), Jiuquan (405–420) · 88,385 km²
Liang, known in historiography as the Western Liang (traditional Chinese: 西涼; simplified Chinese: 西凉; pinyin: Xī Liáng; 400–421), was a dynastic state of China listed as one of the Sixteen Kingdoms. The Western Liang was founded by the Li family of Han descent. The founder of the Tang dynasty, Li Yuan (Emperor Gaozu), traced his patrilineal ancestry to the Western Liang rulers and traced the ancestry of the Western Liang rulers to Li Guang, Li Xin, and Laozi in the paternal line. The ruling Li clan of the Western Liang was known as the Longxi Li lineage (隴西李氏).
Western Liang's founder, Li Gao was from the Li clan of Longxi, a prominent Han Chinese family that claimed descent from figures such as Laozi, Li Xìn and Li Guang. Under the Western Jin and Former Liang dynasties, his family members served as administrators in the Hexi Corridor. In 397, the Administrator of Jiankang (建康, in modern Zhangye, Gansu), Duan Ye, with support of the Lushuihu Juqu tribe, broke away from the Later Liang and founded the Northern Liang. Li Gao served as a magistrate under Northern Liang, and in 400, at the recommendation of the local Han elites, he was made the Administrator of Dunhuang.
In 417, Li Gao died and was succeeded by his son, Li Xin, who records describe as a cruel ruler who drained the state's resource with construction projects. Taking advantage of the situation, the Northern Liang intensified their efforts to conquer Western Liang. In 420, Li Xin was enticed into attacking the Northern Liang capital, Guzang (姑臧, in modern Wuwei, Gansu), and fell into a trap. He died in battle, and Northern Liang forces soon captured Jiuquan. His brother, Li Xun succeeded him in Dunhuang and continued to hold out, but the city eventually fell and Li Xun committed suicide in 421, putting an end to Western Liang.
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Li Gao's descendants survived the fall of Western Liang, with the Tang dynasty claiming descent from him through Li Xin's son, Li Chong'er (李重耳), who fled to the Liu Song dynasty in the south before returning north to the Northern Wei.
Yan, known in historiography as the Northern Yan (Chinese: 北燕; pinyin: Běi Yān; 407 or 409–436), Eastern Yan (simplified Chinese: 东燕; traditional Chinese: 東燕; pinyin: Dōng Yān) or Huanglong (simplified Chinese: 黄龙; traditional Chinese: 黃龍), was a dynastic state of China during the era of Sixteen Kingdoms. Some historians consider Gao Yun, a member of the Goguryeo royal family, to be the first Northern Yan monarch, while others consider Feng Ba of Han ethnicity to be the founder.
All rulers of the Northern Yan took the title of Tiān Wáng (Heavenly King).
Gao Yun was a descendant of the Goguryeo royal family. When the Former Yan captured the Goguryeo capital, Hwando in 342, they also captured several members of the royal family and moved them to Qingshan (青山, in modern Jinzhou, Liaoning), where Gao Yun was born and grew to become a minor general under the Later Yan. In 397, Gao Yun helped the Yan emperor, Murong Bao quell the rebellion of his son, Murong Hui. As a reward, Bao adopted him as his own son, changing his name to Murong Yun.
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It was around this time when Murong Yun became friends with the general, Feng Ba. Feng Ba was a Han Chinese whose family was originally from Changle Commandery before his grandfather, Feng He (馮和) moved to Shangdang during the Disaster of Yongjia. Ba's father, Feng An (馮安) served as a military general under the Western Yan. After Later Yan conquered Western Yan in 394, the Feng clan resettled in Longcheng.
Feng Ba became deathly ill in 430. Conflict arose between his Crown Prince, Feng Yi (馮翼) and favourite concubine, Consort Song (宋夫人), who wanted her own son to inherit the throne. The situation soon leaked to Feng Ba's brother, the Prime Minister Feng Hong, who led his troops and took over the capital. Feng Ba died soon after, and Feng Hong took the throne for himself, slaughtering all of Feng Ba's sons including Feng Yi.
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At the time, the Wei had dealt with the Hu Xia threat in the west and began focusing on conquering Northern Yan. From 432 onwards, Yan faced periodic attacks from Wei. In 433, a succession issue led to Feng Hong's sons handing over Liaoxi Commandery to Wei. Feng Hong refused to surrender and attempted to secure his position by allying with the Liu Song dynasty, even becoming a vassal to them in 435, but Wei continued their assault nonetheless.
The Western Xia or the Xi Xia (Chinese: 西夏; pinyin: Xī Xià; Wade–Giles: Hsi1 Hsia4), officially the Kingdom of the Great Xia of the White and Lofty (Tangut: 𗴂𗹭𘜶𗴲𗂧) or Great Xia (大夏; Dà Xià; Ta4 Hsia4), also known as the Tangut Empire, was a Tangut-led imperial dynasty of China that existed from 1038 to 1227 AD. At its peak, the dynasty ruled over 1,000,000 square kilometres (390,000 square miles) of modern-day north-central China.
The capital of the Western Xia was Xingqing, now Yinchuan; another major Xia city and archaeological site is Khara-Khoto.
The Tanguts originally came from the Qinghai-Sichuan-Tibet region, whose home originally was in the highlands of western Sichuan. According to Chinese records, which called them the Dangxiang, the Tanguts were descended from the Western Qiang people, and occupied the steppes around Qinghai Lake and the mountains to its south.
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In 608, the Tanguts helped the Sui dynasty defeat the Tuyuhun, however they were betrayed by the Sui forces, who took the chance to loot the Tanguts. In 635, they were requested to serve as guides for Emperor Taizong's campaign against Tuyuhun, but the Tang forces double crossed them in a surprise attack and seized thousands of livestock. In retaliation, the Tanguts attacked the Tang and killed thousands of their soldiers.
In recent years, corrupt frontier generals have repeatedly harassed and mistreated [the Tanguts].
Since ancient times we have fought using both infantry and cavalry. Although we have the Iron Hawks that can charge on the plains and the Trekker infantry that can fight in the hills, if we happen to encounter some new tactic our cavalry will have difficulty deploying. If we encounter [Mighty- Arm bows], then our infantry will be scattered. The problem is our troops can only fight according to convention and are unable to adapt to changes during battle.
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In 1980, the Wuwei Bronze Cannon was discovered in a cellar dating to the Western Xia period. Dating to the early 13th century, it is one of the earliest cannons ever discovered. It weighs 108 kg and was discovered with an iron ball about 9cm in diameter inside its barrel.
Tangut society was patriarchal and a woman was considered the property of her parents, husband, and in-laws. A Tangut proverb describes the role of men and women: "A woman is governed by purity within the tent, and a man by purity in the state". Tangut men could have one wife but multiple concubines. If the man committed a crime requiring collective punishment, the children of concubines were exempt while the children of the wife were exiled to become shepherds and peasants. The age of marriage for a woman was 13 under the Tangut Code. A man who touched an under-age girl against her will was punished but if it was with her consent, she was punished. Only her father or maternal uncle were allowed to report assaults.
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Marriage was arranged by the parents of the groom and bride. The groom's parents paid a fee for the girl while the bride's parents provided a dowry.
The Sixteen Kingdoms (simplified Chinese: 十六国; traditional Chinese: 十六國; pinyin: Shíliù Guó), less commonly the Sixteen States, was a period in Chinese history from AD 304 to 439 when the political order of the Jin dynasty (266–420) in northern China fragmented into a series of short-lived dynastic states.
How many states were there among the Sixteen Kingdoms?
The atlas maps 17 of them: Cheng Han, Former Zhao, Former Liang, Former Yan, Later Zhao, Former Qin, Later Liang, Later Qin, Later Yan, Western Qin, Western Yan, Northern Liang and 5 more.
Which was the largest of the Sixteen Kingdoms?
Former Qin had the largest mapped extent, about 1,798,333 km².
Which of the Sixteen Kingdoms lasted longest?
Former Liang lasted longest, 324 CE – 377 CE.
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