Early Modern States of North Africa: Map & History

The Saadians were a Sharifian family which had first established themselves in the Draa valley in the 14th century before moving or spreading to Tidsi in the Sous valley in the following century. Here they lived alongside Sufi teachers and marabouts who promoted the doctrines of al-Jazuli. The beginning of the Saadian rise to power took place in the context of weak central rule in Morocco and of Portuguese expansionism along its Atlantic coast. The Wattasid dynasty, which ruled from Fez in the north, had little authority over the south of the country. Under their reign, Portuguese expansion along the Moroccan coast reached its apogee. Many local resistance and jihad movements, often associated with various Sufi brotherhoods or establishments, arose to oppose the European presence.

From Wikipedia: Saadi Sultanate · History: The rise of Al-Qa'im in the south (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The 16th century during which the Saadians rose to power also saw many social and demographic changes in Morocco. The existing population was joined by large waves of emigrants and refugees from the Iberian Peninsula after the fall of Granada in 1492, the last Muslim emirate of Al-Andalus, and the subsequent expulsion of the Jews from Spain and soon after from Portugal. At the beginning of the century around 100,000 Andalusi Muslims and Jews settled in the country as a result, and were followed by another 20,000 to 30,000 around a century later when Spain began expelling the Moriscos. The Andalusi arrivals revitalized many of the country's northern cities, with notable examples like Tétouan.

From Wikipedia: Saadi Sultanate · Society: Population (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Al-Mansur's only major foreign military venture was the invasion of West Africa – or more particularly the western Sudan, as it was known in Arabic. This was likely motivated by a number of factors. Trans-Saharan trade had long been an important part of Morocco's place in international trade and the tax revenues from it had contributed to funding the Saadians ever since their early days in the Sous. The expansion of European trade routes around the whole coast of Africa, however, had undermined its importance and reduced the flow of gold across the desert. Thus Al-Mansur may have sought to increase his access to gold through direct control of the gold mines in the south.

From Wikipedia: Saadi Sultanate · History: Conquest of the western Sudan under Al-Mansur (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Relatively little is known of Saadian-period art beyond architecture, with the relative exception of decorated manuscripts. Western Maghrebi books, including Qur'ans, had by this point established a calligraphic tradition of writing in the Maghrebi script, which continued well after the medieval (pre-16th century) era. The Saadian sultans were also responsible for compiling large libraries, a practice that became especially marked during the long and prosperous reign of Ahmad al-Mansur. Al-Mansur's increased relations with the Ottoman Empire, particularly during the reign of Mehmed III (1595–1603), resulted in numerous embassies to the Ottoman court which exchanged gifts, including richly produced Qur'an manuscripts.

From Wikipedia: Saadi Sultanate · Culture: Manuscripts and calligraphy (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The Muslim conquest of the Maghreb that had begun during the mid-7th century was completed under the Umayyad Caliphate by 709. The caliphate introduced both Islam and the Arabic language to the area; this period also saw the beginning of a trend of Arab migration to the Maghreb which would last for centuries and effect a demographic shift in the region. While constituting part of the larger empire, Morocco was initially organised as a subsidiary province of Ifriqiya, with the local governors appointed by the Muslim governor in Kairouan.

From Wikipedia: Morocco · History: Foundation and dynasties (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Morocco is a member of the United Nations and belongs to the African Union (AU), Arab League, Arab Maghreb Union (UMA), Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC), the Non-Aligned Movement and the Community of Sahel–Saharan States (CEN–SAD). Morocco's relationships vary greatly between African, Arab, and Western states. Morocco has had strong ties to the West in order to gain economic and political benefits. France and Spain remain the primary trade partners, as well as the primary creditors and foreign investors in Morocco. Among total foreign investments in Morocco, the European Union accounts for approximately 73.5%, whereas the Arab world accounts for 19.3%. Persian Gulf and neighbouring Maghreb countries are becoming more involved in large-scale projects in Morocco.

From Wikipedia: Morocco · Government and politics: Foreign relations (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The Moroccan government has been implementing reforms to improve the quality of education and make research more responsive to socio-economic needs. In May 2009, Morocco's prime minister, Abbas El Fassi, announced that investment in science and technology would rise from US$620,000 in 2008 to US$8.5 million (69 million Moroccan dirhams) in 2009 to finance the laboratories construction, training courses for researchers and a scholarship programme for science during a meeting at the National Centre for Scientific and Technical Research. Morocco was ranked 67th in the Global Innovation Index in 2025, an increase in ranking from 2020 at 75th.

From Wikipedia: Morocco · Economy: Science and technology (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Football is the country's most popular sport, popular among the urban youth in particular. In 1986, Morocco became the first Arab and African country to qualify for the second round of the FIFA World Cup. Morocco hosted the Africa Cup of Nations in 1988 and in 2025, where they were controversially awarded recognised as champions after CAF overturned an initial defeat to Senegal, awarding Morocco a 3–0 victory by walkover. Morocco was originally scheduled to host the 2015 Africa Cup of Nations, but refused to host the tournament on the scheduled dates because of fears over the Ebola outbreak on the continent. Morocco is set to co-host the FIFA World Cup in 2030 along with Portugal and Spain having finally won the bid in their sixth attempt. In 2022, Morocco became the first African and Arab team to reach the semifinals and finished 4th in the tournament.

From Wikipedia: Morocco · Culture: Sport (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Following the Revolutions of Tunis which saw Ibrahim Sharif overthrow Muradids' power, the latter became the first bey to combine this function with that of Pasha. Taken to Algiers following a defeat against the Dey of Algiers, and unable to put an end to the troubles which agitated the country, he was a victim, on 10 July 1705 of a coup of Al-Husayn I ibn Ali, who took the name of Hussein I.

From Wikipedia: Beylik of Tunis · History: Establishment of the beylik (1705–1735) (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The taxes in Tunisia in 1815 (2,2 million gold francs) were not profitable. At the same time, the Bey coveted Tripolitania. In 1848, to maintain his army of 5,000 soldiers, the Bey increased taxation, which provoked a revolt, finally put down. Taxation is reduced, but a loan of 35 million gold francs, at a rate of 7%, is contracted with French bankers.

From Wikipedia: Beylik of Tunis · Politics: Financial policy (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Starting early in the 19th century, Tunisia came increasingly under European influence. Under the Husainid Beys, trade and commerce with the Europeans increased year after year. Permanent residences were established in Tunis by many more foreign merchants, especially Italians. In 1819, the Bey agreed to quit with finality corsair raids. Also the Bey agreed with France to terminate his revenue policy whereby government agents dominated foreign trade by monopolizing the export of Tunisian goods; this change in policy opened the country to international commercial firms. In 1830 the Bey accepted to enforce in Tunisia treaties, in which European merchants enjoyed extraterritorial privileges, including the right to have their resident consuls act as the judge in legal cases involving their national's civil obligations.

From Wikipedia: Beylik of Tunis · Major reforms: European trade (CC BY-SA 4.0)

After defeating Algeria in 1807, the army maintained the same structure, but Ahmad I wanted to change the military policy and was keen to reform and modernize the armed forces, especially since France occupied Algeria in 1830 and its army became a threat to Tunisia.

From Wikipedia: Beylik of Tunis · Major reforms: Military policy (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Encouraged by the political disintegration of the Maghrebi Muslim states and fearing an alliance between the Moriscos (exiled Spanish Muslims) and the Egyptian Mamluk Sultanate, the Spanish Empire captured several cities and established walled and garrisoned strongpoints called presidios in North Africa. The Spanish conquered the city of Oran from the Zayyanids, as well as Béjaïa from the Hafsids in 1509, then Tripoli from the Hafsids in 1510, making other coastal cities submit to them, including Algiers, where they built an island fortress known as the Peñón of Algiers. In addition to territorial ambitions and Catholic missionary fervor, the gold and slave trades funded the Spanish treasury, as Spain controlled the caravan trade routes passing through the central Maghreb.

From Wikipedia: Regency of Algiers · History: Establishment (1512–1533) (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Corsairing remained rhetorically and symbolically central to the ideology of Algiers, reinforcing its identity as a “corsair state” comparable to Malta. An 18th-century Tunisian chronicler, drawing on hadiths, claimed sea warfare conferred ten times the merit of land warfare and that God himself took the souls of sea martyrs, forgiving even their debts. Operating under the aegis of the Ottoman Empire, Algerian corsairs waged maritime campaigns that were both lucrative and ideologically framed as religious warfare against Christian powers. The corsairs first hoisted Islamic green flags adorned with crescents and stars, later replacing them with red flags. Corsair ships fired salute on departure, invoked saints and returns with prizes were presented as divine favor.

From Wikipedia: Regency of Algiers · Administration: Ghazi state (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Algerian corsairs captured many people on land and at sea from Mediterranean shores to Atlantic high seas. According to Wolf, at least 400,000 slaves were brought to the slave market in the city of Algiers, known as Bedestan between 1520 and 1660. From 1660 to 1830 numbers went down to at least 200,000 slaves, without counting the slave population in the entire Regency, totaling over one million European slaves in the early modern period as claimed by American historian Robert Davis. As a result, slavery became the cornerstone of the Algerian economy.

From Wikipedia: Regency of Algiers · Economy: Slave trade (CC BY-SA 4.0)

British tribute payments no longer insured U.S. shipping traffic in the Mediterranean after the American Revolution. This caused Algerian vessels to attack American merchant ships in 1785, claiming the latter were no longer under British protection and asserting an Algerian right to search and seizure. The American president George Washington agreed to pay a ransom and annual tribute equal to $10 million over 12 years in accordance to a peace treaty with Algiers in 1795.

From Wikipedia: Regency of Algiers · History: Barbary Wars (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Architecture during this period showed a convergence of Ottoman influence with local traditions. Mosques began to be built with domes under Ottoman influence, but minarets generally still had square shafts in the local tradition instead of the round or octagonal shafts seen in other Ottoman provinces, where pencil-shaped minarets were symbols of Ottoman sovereignty. The Ali Bitchin Mosque in Algiers was commissioned by its namesake in 1622. The Djamaa el Djedid (lit. 'New Mosque'), built in 1660–1661, became one of the most important Hanafi mosques in Algiers. Architecturally one of the most significant remaining mosques of this era, it exemplifies a mix of Ottoman, North African, and European design elements, with its main dome preceded by a large barrel-vaulted nave. By the end of the 18th century, the city had over 120 mosques, including over a dozen congregational mosques.

From Wikipedia: Regency of Algiers · Culture: Architecture (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Karamanli domination of the Fezzan was consolidated during the 18th century. In the early 19th century, Yusuf expanded Karamanli influence further by sending expeditions south to consolidate control of the trans-Saharan trade routes leading to Kanem–Bornu. By 1807 he was able to force all the tribes of Cyrenaica and the Fezzan, including the Awlad Sulayman, to submit to him, and brought the Fezzan under direct control. Military expeditions into the central Sahara helped to secure the trade routes in 1816. In 1817, Muhammad al-Mukni, the Bey of Fezzan under Karamanli authority, obtained permission from Yusuf to assist Muhammad al-Kanimi, the de facto ruler of Kanem–Bornu, in the latter's war against the neighbouring kingdom of Baghirmi.

From Wikipedia: Karamanli dynasty · History: Trans-Saharan campaigns (CC BY-SA 4.0)

By 1819, the various treaties of the Napoleonic Wars had forced the Barbary states to give up piracy almost entirely, and Tripolitania's economy began to crumble. Yusuf attempted to compensate for lost revenue by encouraging the trans-Saharan slave trade, but with abolitionist sentiment on the rise in Europe and to a lesser degree the United States, this failed to salvage Tripolitania's economy. As Yusuf weakened, factions sprung up around his three sons; though Yusuf abdicated in 1832 in favor of his son Ali II, civil war soon resulted. Ottoman Sultan Mahmud II sent in troops ostensibly to restore order, but instead deposed and exiled Ali II, marking the end of both the Karamanli dynasty and an independent Tripolitania. A descendant family with the same name still exists in modern Tripoli-Libya.

From Wikipedia: Karamanli dynasty · History: Decline (CC BY-SA 4.0)