Medieval States of Egypt and Nubia: Map & History

Shu'ubiyya tendency is characterized by a preference for non-Arab "Ajam" over Arab "tribes". The etymology of this term can be traced back to an interpretation of a Quranic verse: "and made you peoples and tribes that you may know one another." (Quran 49:13). Some interpreters have proposed that the term "peoples" in this context may be understood to refer to "civilized peoples". This inclination first manifested during the Abbasid Caliphate, emerging as a consequence of several factors, most notably the ethnic diversity that characterized the vast Abbasid state and the appointment of non-Arabs to positions within the courts and administrative apparatus of the Abbasid caliphs.

From Wikipedia: Tulunids · Background: Emergence of Shu'ubiyya in the Abbasid State (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Before Ibn Tulun's arrival, Egypt's economic situation was severely compromised. The economic instability commenced during the tenure of Caliph Abu Ja'far al-Mansur, who required that a fixed amount of kharaj be remitted by provincial governors to the capital while failing to oversee their activities. Consequently, the governors levied supplementary taxes on the populace and collected them with considerable rigor. This situation further deteriorated during the second Abbasid era with the advent of Turkic feudalism. Provinces were divided among Turkic military leaders, who implemented oppressive tax and agricultural policies to increase revenues by any means necessary. Upon assuming responsibility for the collection of kharaj, Ibn al-Mudabbir increased taxes fourfold.

From Wikipedia: Tulunids · Economy (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Ahmad ibn Tulun was keenly aware of the pivotal role that a well-trained military force could play in realizing his ambitious goals. From the moment he set foot in Egypt, he sought to establish a military that was loyal to him and could be relied upon as a tool to achieve his goals and maintain his independence. Ahmad ibn Tulun's aspiration to establish a distinctive military force was first revealed when he observed the personal guard of Ahmad ibn al-Mudabbir and sought to emulate this structure for his purposes. However, his initial political caution, concern about inciting suspicion from the Abbasid Caliphate, and the need for financial resources, which were controlled by Ibn al-Mudabbir, prevented him from taking this bold step immediately.

From Wikipedia: Tulunids · Military (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Following Ahmad ibn Tulun's declaration of Egypt's independence from the Abbasid Caliphate, he initiated a program to elevate Fustat to a status comparable to that of the Caliphate's centers in Baghdad and Samarra. As his residence became insufficient to accommodate the growing number of servants and soldiers, he opted to expand it. He selected a site in the distant northeastern section of al-Askar, situated between Mount Yashkur and the foothills of the Mokattam, near the governor's residence. In 257 AH (870 AD), a new suburb, designated "al-Qata'i," was established over an area estimated at one square mile. He then proceeded to lay out his palace in this location and instructed his companions, servants, and followers to construct buildings around it. The construction continued until it became integrated with the wider development of Fustat.

From Wikipedia: Tulunids · Culture: Urban construction (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Khumārawayh constructed a palace at the base of Mount Qasioun, situated near Damascus and the Dayr Murran, where he would often imbibe Alcoholic. He was assassinated in this palace by his servants due to his excessive indulgence in wine and other vices on the 28th of Dhu al-Qi'dah, 282 AH, corresponding to January 18, 896 CE. On that night, the governor of the Levant, Prince Tughj ibn Juff, was present at the palace. Upon learning of the murder, he pursued the perpetrators, who were more than twenty servants, and apprehended them. They were subsequently executed. He subsequently transported Khumārawayh's body in a coffin from Damascus to Egypt. The day of his arrival was notable for the wailing and customary mourning practices of women observed by his concubines, male slaves, and the wives of his leaders upon his arrival.

From Wikipedia: Tulunids · History: Rupture and Demise of the Tulunid Emirate (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The capital of the Abbasid caliphate was moved to Samarra, which served as the seat of the Abbasid state for almost fifty years and became the center of the new Turkic dominance. From the time of al-Mu'tasim, prominent Turkic figures began to emerge on the political scene and play a significant role in public life. Among them were al-Afshin, Ashinas, Itakh, Wasif, and Sima al-Dimashqi, who served the state and supported it in its internal wars against various insurgent movements in its territories, as well as in its external wars against the Byzantine Empire. Over time, these Turks began to seek their power base, either within the Caliphate or independently, as some of them began to aspire to control the affairs of the capital, realizing that the Caliphate could not function without their services.

From Wikipedia: Tulunids · Background: Increasing Turkic influence and its impact on the caliphate (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The Fatimid dynasty came to power as the leaders of Isma'ilism, a revolutionary Shi'a movement "which was at the same time political and religious, philosophical and social," and which originally proclaimed nothing less than the arrival of an Islamic messiah. The origins of that movement, and of the dynasty itself, are obscure prior to the late ninth century.

From Wikipedia: Fatimid Caliphate · History: Origins (CC BY-SA 4.0)

It's unclear what number or percentage of the population inside the caliphate were actually Isma'ilis, but they always remained a minority. Historical chronicles report large numbers of enthusiastic converts in Egypt during the reign of al-'Aziz, but this trend dropped significantly around the middle of al-Hakim's reign. The Fatimid state promoted Isma'ili doctrine (the da'wa) through a hierarchical organisation. The Imam-Caliph, as successor to Muhammad, was both the political and religious leader. Below the Imam-Caliph, the top of this hierarchy was headed by the da'i l-du'at or "supreme missionary". Newcomers to the doctrine were initiated by attending the majalis al-hikma ("Sessions of Wisdom"), lectures and lessons that were delivered in a special hall inside the palaces of Cairo. The doctrine was kept secret from those who were not initiated.

From Wikipedia: Fatimid Caliphate · Society: Isma'ilis (CC BY-SA 4.0)

After al-Hakim's death his two designated heirs were killed, putting an end to his succession scheme, and his sister Sitt al-Mulk arranged to have his 15-year-old son Ali installed on the throne as al-Zahir. She served as his regent until her death in 1023, at which point an alliance of courtiers and officials ruled, with al-Jarjara'i, a former finance official, at their head. Fatimid control in Syria was threatened during the 1020s. In Aleppo, Fatak, who had declared his independence, was killed and replaced in 1022, but this opened the way for a coalition of Bedouin chiefs from the Banu Kilab, Jarrahids, and Banu Kalb led by Salih ibn Mirdas to take the city in 1024 or 1025 and to begin imposing their control on the rest of Syria. Al-Jarjara'i sent Anushtakin al-Dizbari, a Turkish commander, with a force that defeated them in 1029 at the Battle of Uqhuwana near Lake Tiberias.

From Wikipedia: Fatimid Caliphate · History: Losses, successes, and civil war (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The Fatimids were known for their exquisite arts. The Fatimid period is important in the history of Islamic art and architecture as it is one of the earliest Islamic dynasties for which enough materials survive for a detailed study of their evolution. The stylistic diversity of Fatimid art was also a reflection of the wider cultural environment of the Mediterranean world at this time. The most notable characteristics of their decorative arts are the use of lively figurative motifs and the use of an angular, floriated Kufic script for Arabic inscriptions. Among the best-known art forms that flourished are a type of ceramic lustreware and the crafting of objects carved in solid rock crystal. The dynasty also sponsored the production of linen textiles and a tiraz workshop.

From Wikipedia: Fatimid Caliphate · Art and architecture (CC BY-SA 4.0)

As the military viziers effectively became heads of state, the Caliph himself was reduced to the role of a figurehead. The reliance on the iqta system also ate into Fatimid central authority, as more and more the military officers at the further ends of the empire became semi-independent.

From Wikipedia: Fatimid Caliphate · History: Final decline (CC BY-SA 4.0)

After al-Mustansir, his sons Nizar al-Mustafa and al-Musta'li both claimed the right to rule, leading to the Ismailis splitting into the Nizari and Musta'lifactions respectively. Nizar's successors eventually came to be known as the Aga Khans. Among Mustali's, another schism happened at the death of al-Amir in 1130. He was reportedly survived by his infant son al-Tayyib, who was then declared dead by al-Amir's cousin al-Hafiz, who took the caliphate. His supporters became the Hafizi branch, while his opponents, the Tayyibis, claimed al-Tayyib was alive and in hiding, and the true Imam. The Hafizi branch recognized the remaining Imam-caliphs till the dynasty's end in 1171. Meanwhile at-Tayyib's claim to the imamate was endorsed by Arwa al-Sulayhi, Queen of Yemen.

From Wikipedia: Fatimid Caliphate · Legacy (CC BY-SA 4.0)

As Saladin approached Mosul, he faced the issue of taking over a large city and justifying the action. The Zengids of Mosul appealed to an-Nasir, the Abbasid caliph at Baghdad whose vizier favored them. An-Nasir sent Badr al-Badr (a high-ranking religious figure) to mediate between the two sides. Saladin arrived at the city on 10 November 1182. Izz ad-Din would not accept his terms because he considered them disingenuous and extensive, and Saladin immediately laid siege to the heavily fortified city.

From Wikipedia: Zengid dynasty · History: Battle for Mosul (1182–1183) (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The area including Syria, Jazira and Iraq saw an "explosion of figural art" from the 12th to 13th centuries, particularly in the areas of decorative art and illustrated manuscripts. This occurred despite religious condemnations against the depiction of living creatures, on the grounds that "it implies a likeness to the creative activity of God".

From Wikipedia: Zengid dynasty · Literature (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Saladin conquered Aleppo in 1183, ending Zengid rule in Syria. Saladin launched his last offensive against Mosul in late 1185, hoping for an easy victory over the presumably demoralized Zengid Emir of Mosul Mas'ud, but failed due to the city's unexpectedly stiff resistance and a serious illness which caused Saladin to withdraw to Harran. Upon Abbasid encouragement, Saladin and Mas'ud negotiated a treaty in March 1186 that left the Zengids in control of Mosul, but under the obligation to supply the Ayyubids with military support when requested.

From Wikipedia: Zengid dynasty · History: Final decline (1183–1250) (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The progenitor of the Ayyubid dynasty, Najm ad-Din Ayyub ibn Shadhi, belonged to the Kurdish Rawadiya, a branch of the Hadhbani tribe. Ibn Khallikan reported that historians agreed on the family's Kurdish origin, and wrote that he found no source naming anyone earlier than Shadhi, though a member of the Ayyubid family told him Shadhi was the son of Marwan. The Rawadiya were of Arab origin but became Kurdicized over time. In later periods, members of the Ayyubid dynasty sponsored genealogies showing that they were not Kurds, but rather descended from noble Arab lineages, including the Banu Umayya. While these genealogies are generally regarded as politically motivated constructions, the historian Vladimir Minorsky argued that they reflect an underlying historical reality.

From Wikipedia: Ayyubid dynasty · History: Origins (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Saladin structured the Ayyubid empire around the concept of collective sovereignty i.e. a confederation of principalities held together by the idea of family rule. Under this arrangement there existed numerous "petty sultans" while one family member, as-Sultan al-Mu'azzam, reigned supreme. After the death of Saladin, this coveted position became open to whoever was strong enough to seize it. Subsequent rivalry between the Ayyubids of Syria and Egypt reached a point where the rulers of each territory would at times collude with Crusaders against the other. Ayyubid rule differed in these two regions. In Syria, each major city was ruled as a relatively independent principality under an Ayyubid family member, while in Egypt the long tradition of centralized rule enabled the Ayyubids to maintain direct control over the province from Cairo.

From Wikipedia: Ayyubid dynasty · Government: Structure (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Having pushed the Crusaders out of most of Syria, the Ayyubids generally adopted a policy of peace with them. The war with the Crusaders did not prevent Muslims under Ayyubid governance from developing good commercial relations with European states. This led to fruitful interaction between both sides in different fields of economic activity, particularly in agriculture and trade.

From Wikipedia: Ayyubid dynasty · Economy (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Although still nominally a vassal of Nur al-Din, Saladin adopted an increasingly independent foreign policy. This independence became more publicly pronounced after Nur al-Din's death in 1174. Thereafter, Saladin set out to conquer Syria from the Zengids; and on November 23 he was welcomed in Damascus by the governor of the city. By 1175, he had taken control of Hama and Homs but failed to take Aleppo after besieging it. Control of Homs was handed to the descendants of Shirkuh in 1179 and Hama was given to Saladin's nephew, al-Muzaffar Umar. Saladin's successes alarmed Emir Saif al-Din of Mosul, the head of the Zengids at the time, who regarded Syria as his family's estate and was angered that it was being usurped by a former servant of Nur al-Din. He mustered an army to confront Saladin near Hama.

From Wikipedia: Ayyubid dynasty · History: Conquest of Syria and Upper Mesopotamia (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Military architecture was the supreme expression of the Ayyubid period, as well as an eagerness to fortify the restoration of Sunni Islam, especially in a previously Shia-dominated Egypt by constructing Sunni madrasas. The most radical change Saladin implemented in Egypt was the enclosure of Cairo and al-Fustat within one city wall. Some of the techniques of fortification were learned from the Crusaders, such as curtain walls following the natural topography. Many were also inherited from the Fatimids like machicolations and round towers, while other techniques were developed simultaneously by the Ayyubids, particularly concentric planning.

From Wikipedia: Ayyubid dynasty · Architecture (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The Ayyubids had been under the nominal sovereignty of the Mongol Empire after a Mongol force targeted Ayyubid territories in Anatolia in 1244. An-Nasir Yusuf sent an embassy to the Mongol capital Karakorum in 1250, shortly after assuming power. These understandings did not last, however, and the Mongol Great Khan, Möngke, issued a directive to his brother Hulagu to extend the realms of the empire to the Nile River. The latter raised an army of 120,000 and in 1258, sacked Baghdad and slaughtered its inhabitants, including Caliph al-Musta'sim and most of his family after the Ayyubids failed to assemble an army to protect the city. That same year the Ayyubids lost Diyar Bakr to the Mongols.

From Wikipedia: Ayyubid dynasty · History: Mongol invasion and collapse of the empire (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The mamluk was a manumitted slave, distinguished from the ghulam, or household slave. After thorough training in martial arts, court etiquette and Islamic sciences, these slaves were freed but expected to remain loyal to their master and serve his household. Mamluks formed part of the military apparatus in Syria and Egypt since at least the 9th century, rising to become the Tulunid and Ikhshidid governing dynasties in these regions.

From Wikipedia: Mamluk Sultanate · History: Origins (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The Mamluk sultan was the supreme government authority, while he delegated power to provincial governors known as nuwwab al-saltana (deputy sultans, sing. na'ib al-saltana). The vice-regent of Egypt was the top na'ib, followed by the na'ib of Damascus, then Aleppo, then the nuwwab of al-Karak, Safed, Tripoli, Homs and Hama. In Hama, the Mamluks permitted the Ayyubids to continue governing until 1341 (its popular governor in 1320, Abu'l Fida, was granted the honorary title of sultan by al-Nasir Muhammad), but otherwise the nuwwab of the provinces were mamluk emirs.

From Wikipedia: Mamluk Sultanate · Government: Authority of the sultan (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The iqtaʿ system was inherited from the Ayyubids and further organized under the Mamluks to fit their military needs. Iqtaʿat were a central component of the Mamluk power structure. The iqtaʿ of the Muslims differed from the European concept of fiefs in that the iqtaʿ represented a right to collect revenue from a fixed territory and was accorded to an officer (an emir) as income and a financial source to provision his soldiers. Before the Mamluks' rise, there was a growing tendency of iqtaʿ holders to treat their iqtaʿ as personal, heritable property. The Mamluks effectively ended this, with the exception of some areas, mainly in Mount Lebanon, where longtime Druze iqtaʿ holders (see Buhturids), who became part of the halqa, successfully resisted the abolition of their hereditary iqtaʿat.

From Wikipedia: Mamluk Sultanate · Economy: Iqtaʿ system (CC BY-SA 4.0)

In 1249, Louis IX of France captured Damietta during the Seventh Crusade. As the Crusaders advanced, al-Salih died and was succeeded by his Jazira (Upper Mesopotamia)-based son al-Mu'azzam Turanshah. Turanshah challenged the Salihiyya's dominance in the paramilitary apparatus by promoting his Kurdish retinue from the Jazira and Syria as a counterweight. On 11 February 1250, the Bahriyya (sing. Bahri), a junior regiment of the Salihiyya commanded by Baybars, defeated the Crusaders at the Battle of al-Mansura. On 6 April, Egypt's forces annihilated the Crusader army, capturing Louis IX. The victorious Turanshah promoted his own entourage and mamluks, the 'Mu'azzamiya', at the expense of the Salihiyya. On 2 May 1250, disgruntled Salihi emirs assassinated Turanshah at his camp in Fariskur.

From Wikipedia: Mamluk Sultanate · History: Conflict with the Ayyubids (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Mamluk decorative arts—especially enameled and gilded glass, inlaid metalwork, woodwork, and textiles—were prized around the Mediterranean as well as in Europe, where they had a profound impact on local production. Mamluk glassware influenced the Venetian glass industry. Trade with Iran, India, and China was even more extensive, turning Mamluk cities into centers of both trade and consumption. Imported luxury goods from the East sometimes influenced local artistic vocabularies, as exemplified by the incorporation of Chinese motifs into both objects and architecture. The Mamluks themselves, as former slaves who rose through the ranks by their own efforts, were status-conscious patrons who commissioned luxury objects marked with emblems of their ownership.

From Wikipedia: Mamluk Sultanate · Culture: Art (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Al-Nasir Muhammad died in 1341 and his rule was followed by a succession of descendants in a period marked by political instability. Most of his successors, except for al-Nasir Hasan (r. 1347–1351, 1354–1361) and al-Ashraf Sha'ban (r. 1363–1367), were sultans in name only, with the patrons of the leading mamluk factions holding actual power. The first of al-Nasir Muhammad's sons to accede was al-Mansur Abu Bakr, who al-Nasir Muhammad designated as successor. Al-Nasir Muhammad's senior aide, Qawsun, held real power and imprisoned and executed Abu Bakr and had al-Nasir Muhammad's infant son, al-Ashraf Kujuk, appointed instead. By January 1342, Qawsun and Kujuk were toppled, and the latter's half-brother, al-Nasir Ahmad of al-Karak, was declared sultan. Ahmad relocated to al-Karak and left a deputy to govern in Cairo.

From Wikipedia: Mamluk Sultanate · History: End of the Bahri regime (CC BY-SA 4.0)

By the early 4th century, if not before, the Kingdom of Kush with its capital Meroe was collapsing. The region which would later constitute Makuria, i.e. the Nile Valley between the third Nile cataract and the great Nile bend of the fourth/fifth cataract, has been proposed to have seceded from Kush already in the 3rd century. Here, a homogenous and relatively isolated culture dubbed as "pre-Makuria" developed. During the 4th and 5th centuries, the region of Napata, located near the fourth cataract and formerly being one of the most important political and sacred places of Kush, served as the center for a new regional elite buried in large tumuli like those at el Zuma or Tanqasi. There was a significant population growth accompanied by social transformations.

From Wikipedia: Makuria · History: Early period (5th–8th century) (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Makuria was a monarchy ruled by a king based in Dongola. The king was also considered a priest and could perform mass. How succession was decided is not clear. Early writers indicate it was from father to son. After the 12th century, however, it seems clear that Makuria was using the uncle-to-sister's-son system. A Coptic source from the mid 8th century refers to king Cyriacos as "orthodox Abyssinian king of Makuria" as well as "Greek king", with "Abyssinian" probably reflecting the Miaphysite Coptic church and "Greek" the Byzantine Orthodox one. In 1186 king Moses Georgios called himself "king of Alodia, Makuria, Nobadia, Dalmatia and Axioma."

From Wikipedia: Makuria · Government (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The main economic activity in Makuria was agriculture, with farmers growing several crops a year of barley, millet, and dates. The methods used were generally the same that had been used for millennia. Small plots of well irrigated land were lined along the banks of the Nile, which would be fertilized by the river's annual flooding. One important technological advance was the saqiya, an oxen-powered water wheel, that was introduced in the Roman period and helped increase yields and population density. Settlement patterns indicate that land was divided into individual plots rather than as in a manorial system. The peasants lived in small villages composed of clustered houses of sun-dried brick.

From Wikipedia: Makuria · Economy (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Beside Nubian there existed three other languages in medieval Nubia: Greek, Coptic and Arabic. Greek is the language that is attested the most often. It was a highly prestigious sacral language associated with the Christian Scriptures and the liturgy. Ostraca with receipts for the shipment of grain suggest that Greek may have also been used for administrative and commercial purposes during the 6th–8th centuries. Funerary stelae, which were produced until the 12th century, often featured a rather sophisticated Greek following late antique models. Late inscriptions, however, show that over time Greek in Makuria became increasingly "Nubianized".

From Wikipedia: Makuria · Culture: Others (CC BY-SA 4.0)

In 1171 Saladin overthrew the Fatimid dynasty, which signaled new hostilities between Egypt and Nubia. The following year a Makurian army pillaged Aswan and advanced even further north. It is not clear if this campaign was intended to aid the Fatimids or was merely a raid exploiting the unstable situation in Egypt The latter seems more likely, however, as the Makurians apparently soon withdrew. A subsequent expedition by Saladin's brother Turan-Shah conquered Qasr Ibrim in January 1173, reportedly sacking it and converting its church into a mosque. King Moses Georgios, who probably ruled over both Makuria and Alodia, initiated peace negotiations, but in vain. A detachment of Kurdish troops stationed in Qasr Ibrim would raid Lower Nubia for the next two years until in 1175 a Nubian army finally arrived to confront the invaders at Adindan near Faras.

From Wikipedia: Makuria · History: Decline (12th century – 1366) (CC BY-SA 4.0)