Modern States of Central and Southern Africa: Map & History

During this period a significant proportion of marriages were interracial, this is at least partially attributed to a lack of 'White' or 'Christian' women within the colony. What later became the racial division between 'White' and 'non-White' populations originally began as a division between Christian and non-Christian populations. The Geslags-registeers estimated that seven percent of the Afrikaner gene pool in 1807 was non-White.

From Wikipedia: Dutch Cape Colony · Demographics (CC BY-SA 4.0)

In 1795, France occupied the Dutch Republic. This prompted Great Britain, at war with France, to occupy the territory that same year as a way to better control the seas on the way to India. The British sent a fleet of nine warships which anchored at Simon's Town and, following the defeat of the Dutch militia at the Battle of Muizenberg, took control of the territory. The United East India Company transferred its territories and claims to the Batavian Republic (the Dutch sister republic established by France) in 1798, then ceased to exist in 1799. Improving relations between Britain and Napoleonic France, and its vassal state the Batavian Republic, led the British to hand the Cape Colony over to the Batavian Republic in 1803, under the terms of the Treaty of Amiens.

From Wikipedia: Dutch Cape Colony · History: British conquest (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Shaka was the illegitimate son of Senzangakhona, Chief of the Zulus. He was born c. 1787. He and his mother, Nandi, were exiled by Senzangakhona, and found refuge with the Mthethwa. Shaka fought as a warrior under Dingiswayo, leader of the Mthethwa Paramountcy. When Senzangakona died, Dingiswayo helped Shaka become king of the Zulu. After Dingiswayo's death at the hands of Zwide, king of the Ndwandwe, around 1816, Shaka assumed leadership of the entire Mthethwa alliance.

From Wikipedia: Zulu Kingdom · History: Rise under Shaka (CC BY-SA 4.0)

On 11 December 1878, with the intent of instigating a war with the Zulu, Sir Henry Bartle Frere, on his own initiative and without the approval of the British government, presented an ultimatum to the Zulu king Cetshwayo in terms with which he could not possibly comply: that the Zulu army be disbanded and the Zulus accept a British resident. British forces crossed the Tugela river at the end of December 1878. Initially, the British suffered a heavy defeat at the Battle of Isandlwana on 22 January 1879 where the Zulu army killed more than 1,000 British soldiers in a single day.

From Wikipedia: Zulu Kingdom · History: British Conquest (CC BY-SA 4.0)

On 1 April 1842 Captain T. C. Smith with a force of 263 men left his camp at the Umgazi, on the eastern frontier of Cape Colony, and marching overland reached Durban without opposition, and encamped, on 4 May, at the base of the Berea hills. The Boers, cut off from their port, called out a commando of some 300 to 400 men under Andries Pretorius and gathered at Congella at the head of the bay. On the night of 23 May, Smith made an unsuccessful attack on the Boer camp, losing his guns and fifty men were killed or wounded. On 26 May the Boers captured the harbour and settlement, and on 31 May blockaded the British camp, the women and children being removed, on the suggestion of Pretorius, to a ship in the harbour of which the Boers had taken possession.

From Wikipedia: Natalia Republic · Transfer to colonial government: Battle of Congella (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Toward the end of the year, the Boers received reinforcements. In December 460 men set out under Boer general Andries Pretorius to take on the Zulus. Andries Pretorius selected Jan Gerritze Bantjes (1817-1887) as his scribe and secretary in recording events of the campaign and coming retaliation battle with the Zulus. Bantjes documented daily in his journal the progress of the commando, from their start on 27 November 1838 until they reached their selected battle site on 15 December 1838. They avoided being led into a trap as happened on the previous attempt to attack the Zulus in April which ended in disaster. On the journey, they had small skirmishes with various kraals but the main Zulu army had not arrived yet to attack. Boer and Zulu scouts were constantly monitoring each other's whereabouts.

From Wikipedia: Natalia Republic · History: Battle of Blood River (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The Orange Free State was one of two Boer Republics, alongside the Transvaal, able to persist and prosper long enough to gain international recognition. The Orange Free State would eventually establish diplomatic relations with the Netherlands, France, Germany, Belgium, the United States, and the United Kingdom.

From Wikipedia: Orange Free State · Politics: Foreign relations (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Distracted among themselves, with the formidable Basotho power on their southern and eastern flank, the troubles of the infant state were speedily added to by the action of the Transvaal Boers of the South African Republic. Marthinus Pretorius, who had succeeded to his father's position as commandant general of Potchefstroom, wished to bring about a confederation between the two Boer states. Peaceful overtures from Pretorius were declined, and some of his partisans in the Orange Free State were accused of treason in February 1857. Thereupon Pretorius, aided by Paul Kruger, conducted a raid into the Orange Free State's territory. On learning of the invasion, President Jacobus Nicolaas Boshoff proclaimed martial law throughout the country. The majority of the burghers rallied to his support, and on 25 May, the two opposing forces faced one another on the banks of the Rhenoster.

From Wikipedia: Orange Free State · History: Conflict with the South African Republic (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The Boer republics emerged when the British had annexed the Cape Colony from the Dutch in 1806, in order to prevent the sea routes to the East (India etc.) from falling to Napoleon. This area was inhabited by the Boers, who, dissatisfied with British rule, decided to leave the colony and move into the hinterland of South Africa in what became the Great Trek. These Boers then settled these lands, becoming farmers.

From Wikipedia: South African Republic · History: Establishment (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The language spoken and written by the citizens of the ZAR was a variant of Dutch, locally referred to as Hooghollands. On 3 October 1884, the Volksraad stated that they had reason to believe that in certain schools impure Dutch (in fact an early form of Afrikaans) was being used. The Volksraad issued Proclamation 207 and compelled the Superintendent of Education to apply the language law enforcing the exclusive use of Dutch. On 30 July 1888, Dutch language was declared the sole official language, in court as well as education, trade and general use. All other languages were declared "foreign".

From Wikipedia: South African Republic · Language (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The discovery of gold during the Witwatersrand Gold Rush in 1886 changed the economic fortunes of the formerly impoverished ZAR. The city of Johannesburg was founded as a gold mining town in the same year. Within 10 years it grew into the largest city in Southern Africa at about 100.000 inhabitants, surpassing Cape Town and becoming one of the fastest-growing cities ever.

From Wikipedia: South African Republic · Economy and transport (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Hendrik Potgieter was elected at the assembly of 1849 as commandant general for life and it became necessary, to avoid strife, to appoint three commandants general all possessing equal powers. Commandant General Andries Pretorius became commandant general of the Potchefstroom and Rustenburg districts. On 16 December 1852, Andries died and his son, Piet Pretorius, was appointed as commandant general of the Lydenburg and Zoutpansberg districts in his stead.

From Wikipedia: South African Republic · Military history: War with Mapela and Makapaan, 1854 (CC BY-SA 4.0)

By 1841, businessmen from Europe had established small trading posts along the coasts of Africa, but they seldom moved inland, preferring to stay near the sea. They primarily traded with locals. Large parts of the continent were essentially uninhabitable for Europeans because of their high mortality rates from tropical diseases such as malaria. In the middle of the 19th century, European explorers mapped much of East Africa and Central Africa.

From Wikipedia: Scramble for Africa · Background (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Britain's administration of Egypt and the Cape Colony contributed to a preoccupation over securing the source of the Nile river. Egypt was taken over by the British in 1882, leaving the Ottoman Empire in a nominal role until 1914, when London made it a protectorate. Egypt was never an actual British colony. Sudan, Nigeria, Kenya, and Uganda were subjugated in the 1890s and early 20th century; and in the south, the Cape Colony (first acquired in 1795) provided a base for the subjugation of neighbouring African states and the Dutch Afrikaner settlers who had left the Cape to avoid the British and then founded their republics. Theophilus Shepstone annexed the South African Republic in 1877 for the British Empire, after it had been independent for 20 years. In 1879, after the Anglo-Zulu War, Britain consolidated its control of most of the territories of South Africa.

From Wikipedia: Scramble for Africa · History and characteristics: Britain's administration of Egypt and South Africa (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The Berlin Conference established the principle of "effective occupation" but national outrage at the 1890 British Ultimatum, a declining financial situation at home caused by worldwide recession and the rising tide of the "scramble" spurred Portugal towards territorial acquisition. The Portuguese beneffited from the most familiarity with the continent out of all the European powers, while the native polities were by the late 19th century wracked by long-standing internal issues and severely disunited, with many of its elites willing to cooperate in exchange for aid against their rivals and an advantageous position in the new order.

From Wikipedia: Scramble for Africa · History and characteristics: The Portuguese Campaigns of Pacification and Occupation (CC BY-SA 4.0)

By the end of World War I the colonial empires had become very popular almost everywhere in Europe: public opinion had been convinced of the needs of a colonial empire, although most of the metropolitans would never see a piece of it. Colonial exhibitions were instrumental in this change of popular mentalities brought about by the colonial propaganda, supported by the colonial lobby and by various scientists. Thus, conquests of territories were inevitably followed by public displays of the indigenous people for scientific and leisure purposes.

From Wikipedia: Scramble for Africa · Philosophy: Colonial exhibitions (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Eswatini is an absolute monarchy with constitutional provision and Swazi law and customs. The head of state is the king or ngwenyama (lit. 'lion'), currently King Mswati III, who ascended to the throne in 1986 after the death of his father King Sobhuza II in 1982 and a period of regency. According to the country's constitution, the ngwenyama is a symbol of unity and the eternity of the Swazi nation. By tradition, the king reigns along with his mother (or a ritual substitute), the ndlovukati (lit. 'she-elephant'). The former was viewed as the administrative head of state and the latter as a spiritual and national head of state, with real power counterbalancing that of the king, but during the long reign of Sobhuza II, the role of the ndlovukati became more symbolic.

From Wikipedia: Eswatini · Politics: Monarchy (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Eswatini's economy is diverse, with agriculture, forestry and mining accounting for about 13% of GDP, manufacturing (textiles and sugar-related processing) representing 37% of GDP and services – with government services in the lead – constituting 50% of GDP. Title Deed Lands, where the bulk of high value crops are grown (sugar, forestry, and citrus), are characterised by high levels of investment and irrigation, and high productivity. About 75% of the population is employed in subsistence agriculture upon Swazi Nation Land (SNL). In contrast with the commercial farms, SNL suffers from low productivity and investment.

From Wikipedia: Eswatini · Economy (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The principal Swazi social unit is the homestead, a traditional beehive hut thatched with dry grass. In a polygamous homestead, each wife has her own hut and yard surrounded by reed fences. There are three structures for sleeping, cooking, and storage (brewing beer). Larger homesteads also have structures used as bachelors' quarters and guest accommodation. Central to the traditional homestead is the cattle byre, a circular area enclosed by large logs, interspersed with branches. The cattle byre has ritual as well as practical significance as a store of wealth and symbol of prestige. It contains sealed grain pits. Facing the cattle byre is the great hut which is occupied by the mother of the headman. The headman is central to all homestead affairs, and he is often polygamous.

From Wikipedia: Eswatini · Culture (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The participation of Congolese people in the Second World War and news of changes in other colonies resulted in their organising to gain more power. As a result of the inability of the colonial government to introduce radical and credible changes, the Congolese elites began to organise themselves socially and soon also politically. In the 1950s, two markedly different forms of nationalism arose among the Congolese elites. The nationalist movement—to which the Belgian authorities, to some degree, turned a blind eye—promoted territorial nationalism, wherein the Belgian Congo would become one politically united state after independence.

From Wikipedia: Belgian Congo · Toward independence: Political organisation (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Two distinct periods of investment in the Congo's economic infrastructure stand out during the period of Belgian rule: the 1920s and the 1950s.

From Wikipedia: Belgian Congo · Economic policy: Interbellum (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The Belgian Congo was directly involved in the two world wars. During World War I, an initial stand-off between the Force Publique and the German colonial army in German East Africa (Tanganyika) turned into open warfare with a joint Anglo-Belgian invasion of German colonial territory in 1916 and 1917 during the East African campaign. By 1916, the Belgian commander of the Force Publique, Lieutenant-General Charles Tombeur, had assembled an army of 15,000 men supported by local bearers – Reybrouck indicated that during the war no less than 260,000 native bearers were called upon – and advanced to Kigali (now the capital of Rwanda). Kigali was taken by 6 May 1916, and the army went on to take Tabora (now part of Tanzania) on 19 September after heavy fighting.

From Wikipedia: Belgian Congo · Belgian Congo: International conflicts (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The educational system was dominated by the Catholic Church—as was the case for the rest of Belgium at the time—and, in some rare cases, by Protestant churches. Curricula reflected Christian and Western values. Even in 1948, 99.6% of educational facilities were run by Christian missions. Indigenous schooling was mainly religious and vocational. Children received basic education such as learning how to read, write and some mathematics. The Belgian Congo was one of the few African colonies in which local languages (Kikongo, Lingala, Tshiluba and Swahili) were taught at primary school. Even so, language policies and colonial domination often went hand in hand, as evidenced by the preference given to Lingala—a semi-artificial language spread through its common use in the Force Publique—over more local (but also more ancient) indigenous languages such as Lomongo and others.

From Wikipedia: Belgian Congo · Civilising mission: Education (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Portugal's overriding problem in 1926 was its enormous public debt. Several times between 1926 and 1928, Salazar turned down appointments to the finance ministry. He pleaded ill-health, devotion to his aged parents and a preference for the academic cloisters. In 1927, under the ministry of Sinel de Cordes, the public deficit kept on growing. The government tried to obtain loans from Baring Brothers under the auspices of the League of Nations, but the conditions were considered unacceptable. With Portugal under the threat of an imminent financial collapse, Salazar finally agreed to become its 81st finance minister on 26 April 1928 after Óscar Carmona was elected president. However, before accepting the position, he personally secured from Carmona a categorical assurance that as finance minister he would have a free hand to veto expenditure in all government departments, not just his own.

From Wikipedia: Estado Novo (Portugal) · Economy (CC BY-SA 4.0)

After World War II (1939–1945), however, the corporatist economic model was less and less applicable. And after decolonisation in the 1950s and 1960s, the Portuguese regime became also a source of criticism and dissent by most of the international community. Nevertheless, Salazar clung to it, thereby slowing the nation's long-term economic development. Salazar's postwar policy allowed some liberalisation in politics, in terms of organised opposition with more freedom of the press. Opposition parties were tolerated to an extent, but they were also controlled, limited, and manipulated, with the result that they split into factions and never formed a united opposition. He permitted the formation of Movement of Democratic Unity (Movimento de Unidade Democrática) in 1945. It boycotted the election and Salazar won handily on 18 November 1945. In 1949 Portugal became a founding member of NATO.

From Wikipedia: Estado Novo (Portugal) · Regime: Post-World War II (CC BY-SA 4.0)

In 1936, António Carneiro Pacheco (then rector of the University of Lisbon) was nominated as the minister of the public instruction. In the same year, his ministry issued a law that altered the ministry's name to Ministry of National Education, and included a National Board of Education (Junta Nacional da Educação). This National Board of Education aimed to study and inform the minister in all matters of both education and culture. Parents and educators were to be represented in all sections of this board, except for the cultural relations and scientific research section. This board replaced the Superior Council for Public Instruction, which had existed since 1835, along with other consulting boards, such as the National Board of Excavations and Antiques.

From Wikipedia: Estado Novo (Portugal) · Education: Ministry of Carneiro Pacheco (1936–1940) (CC BY-SA 4.0)

After India achieved independence in 1947 under the Attlee government, pro-Indian residents of the Portuguese overseas territory of Dadra and Nagar Haveli, with the support of the Indian government and the help of pro-independence organisations, liberated Dadra and Nagar Haveli from Portuguese rule in 1954. In 1961, the Fort of São João Baptista de Ajudá's annexation by the Republic of Dahomey was the start of a process that led to the final dissolution of the centuries-old Portuguese Empire. According to the census of 1921 São João Baptista de Ajudá had 5 inhabitants and, at the moment of the ultimatum by the Dahomey Government, it had only 2 inhabitants representing Portuguese sovereignty. Another forcible retreat from overseas territories occurred in December 1961 when Portugal refused to relinquish the territories of Goa and Daman and Diu.

From Wikipedia: Estado Novo (Portugal) · End of the regime (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Despite de Gaulle's call to continue the struggle, few French forces initially pledged their support. By the end of July 1940, only about 7,000 soldiers had joined the Free French Army in Britain. Three-quarters of French servicemen in Britain requested repatriation.

From Wikipedia: Free France · History: Beginnings of the Free French forces (CC BY-SA 4.0)

By September 1944, the Free French forces stood at 560,000 (including 176,500 White French from North Africa, 63,000 metropolitan French, 233,000 Maghrebis and 80,000 from Black Africa). The GPRF set about raising new troops to participate in the advance to the Rhine and the invasion of Germany, using the FFI as military cadres and manpower pools of experienced fighters to allow a very large and rapid expansion of the French Liberation Army. It was well equipped and well supplied despite the economic disruption brought by the occupation thanks to Lend-Lease, and their number rose to 1 million by the end of the year.

From Wikipedia: Free France · Campaigns in France and Germany 1944–1945 (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The Free French Memorial on Lyle Hill in Greenock, in western Scotland, in the shape of the Cross of Lorraine combined with an anchor, was raised by subscription as a memorial to sailors on the Free French Naval Forces vessels that sailed from the Firth of Clyde to take part in the Battle of the Atlantic.

From Wikipedia: Free France · Legacy (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The period from 1500 to 1800 saw Madagascar's populations go from being mobile and unsettled to being organized largely into states. On the northern coast, Mahilaka was abandoned and replaced by Vohemar in the 15th century as one of the island's main trading ports, accompanied by Mazalagem Nova in the late 16th century. Portuguese navigators reached Madagascar around 1500, and sacked the port city of Sada (part of the Guingemaro kingdom) in 1506. Over the following centuries, the slave trade grew in importance as slaves were traded for firearms. In the late 17th century, Madagascar had an influx of pirates who had been expelled from the Caribbean, some of whom participated in local wars and married local women, although they were routed by the British navy in the 1720s.

From Wikipedia: Madagascar · History: Rise of early kingdoms and contact with Europeans (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Since Madagascar's independence from France in 1960, the island's political transitions have been marked by numerous popular protests, several disputed elections, an impeachment, two military coups, and an assassination. The country's recurrent political crises have often been prolonged, with detrimental effects on the local economy, international relations, and Malagasy living standards. For example, the eight-month standoff between incumbent Ratsiraka and challenger Ravalomanana following the 2001 presidential elections cost Madagascar millions of dollars in lost tourism and trade revenue as well as damage to infrastructure, such as bombed bridges and buildings damaged by arson. A series of protests led by Andry Rajoelina against Ravalomanana in early 2009 became violent, with more than 170 people killed.

From Wikipedia: Madagascar · Government: Politics (CC BY-SA 4.0)

In 2010, Madagascar had approximately 7,617 km (4,730 mi) of paved roads, 854 km (530 mi) of railways, and 432 km (270 mi) of navigable waterways. The majority of roads in Madagascar are unpaved, with many impassable in the rainy season. Largely paved national routes connect the six largest regional towns to Antananarivo, with minor paved and unpaved routes providing access to other population centers in each district. As of 2023, the World Bank estimated that 17 million people in Madagascar's rural areas live more than 2 km away from an all-season road.

From Wikipedia: Madagascar · Economy: Infrastructure and media (CC BY-SA 4.0)

All the many ethnic subgroups in Madagascar adhere to their own set of beliefs, practices, and ways of life that have historically contributed to their unique identities. However, a number of core cultural features are common throughout the island, creating a strongly unified Malagasy cultural identity. In addition to a common language and shared traditional religious beliefs around a creator god and veneration of ancestors, the traditional Malagasy worldview is shaped by values that emphasize fihavanana (solidarity), vintana (destiny), tody (karma), and hasina, a sacred life force that traditional communities believe imbues and thereby legitimates authority figures within the community or family.

From Wikipedia: Madagascar · Culture (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Evidence from archaeological excavations at Shum Laka in the Northwest Region shows human occupation in Cameroon dating back 30,000 years. The longest continuous inhabitants are groups such as the Baka (Pygmies). From there, Bantu migrations into eastern, southern and central Africa are believed to have occurred about 2,000 years ago. The Sao culture arose around Lake Chad, c. 500 CE, and gave way to the Kanem and its successor state, the Bornu Empire. Kingdoms, fondoms, and chiefdoms arose in the west.

From Wikipedia: Cameroon · History: Early history (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Cameroon is viewed as rife with corruption at all levels of government. In 1997, Cameroon established anti-corruption bureaus in 29 ministries, but only 25% became operational, and in 2012, Transparency International placed Cameroon at number 144 on a list of 176 countries ranked from least to most corrupt. On 18 January 2006, Biya initiated an anti-corruption drive under the direction of the National Anti-Corruption Observatory. There are several high corruption risk areas in Cameroon, for instance, customs, public health sector and public procurement. However, the corruption has gotten worse, regardless of the existing anti-corruption bureaus, as Transparency International ranked Cameroon 152 on a list of 180 countries in 2018.

From Wikipedia: Cameroon · Politics and government: Political culture (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Cameroon's per capita GDP (Purchasing power parity) was estimated at US$5.760 in 2025. Major export markets include the Netherlands, France, China, Belgium, Italy, Algeria, and Malaysia.

From Wikipedia: Cameroon · Economy and infrastructure (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Music and dance are integral parts of Cameroonian ceremonies, festivals, social gatherings, and storytelling. Traditional dances are highly choreographed with men and women often participating separately. The dances' purposes range from pure entertainment to religious devotion. Traditionally, music is transmitted orally. In a typical performance, a chorus of singers echoes a soloist.

From Wikipedia: Cameroon · Culture: Music and dance (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Approximately 10,000 years ago, desertification forced hunter-gatherer societies south into the Sahel regions of northern Central Africa, where some groups settled. Farming began as part of the Neolithic Revolution. Initial farming of white yam progressed into millet and sorghum, and before 3000 BCE the domestication of African oil palm improved the groups' nutrition and allowed for expansion of the local populations. This agricultural revolution, combined with a "Fish-stew Revolution", in which fishing began to take place and the use of boats, allowed for the transportation of goods. Products were often moved in ceramic pots.

From Wikipedia: Central African Republic · History: Early history (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Politics of the Central African Republic formally take place in a framework of a presidential republic. In this system, the president is the head of state, with a prime minister as head of government. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and parliament.

From Wikipedia: Central African Republic · Government and politics (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The per capita income of the Republic is often listed as being approximately $400 per year, one of the lowest in the world, but this figure is based mostly on reported sales of exports and largely ignores the unregistered sale of foods, locally produced alcoholic beverages, diamonds, ivory, bushmeat, and traditional medicine. The annual growth rate of real GDP is slightly above 3%. The primary import partner is France (17.1%). Other imports come from the United States (12.3%), India (11.5%), and China (8.2%). Its largest export partner is France (31.2%), followed by Burundi (16.2%), China (12.5%), Cameroon (9.6%), and Austria (7.8%). The currency is the CFA franc, which is accepted across the former countries of French West Africa and trades at a fixed rate to the euro.

From Wikipedia: Central African Republic · Economy (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Bozizé suspended the constitution and named a new cabinet, which included most opposition parties. Abel Goumba was named vice-president. Bozizé established a broad-based National Transition Council to draft a new constitution and announced that he would step down and run for office once the constitution was approved.

From Wikipedia: Central African Republic · History: Civil wars (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Football is the country's most popular sport. The national football team is governed by the Central African Football Federation and stages matches at the Barthélemy Boganda Stadium. Basketball is also popular and its national team won the African Championship twice and was the first Sub-Saharan African team to qualify for the Basketball World Cup, in 1974.

From Wikipedia: Central African Republic · Culture: Sports (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The presidential republic form of government is stated under the 1961 constitution (revised in 1975, rewritten in 1991, and revised in 2003). The president is elected by universal suffrage for a seven-year term; a 2003 constitutional amendment removed presidential term limits. The president can appoint and dismiss the prime minister, the cabinet, and judges of the independent Supreme Court. The president has other powers, such as the authority to dissolve the National Assembly, declare a state of siege, delay legislation, and conduct referendums. The parliament of Gabon is bicameral with a National Assembly and Senate. The National Assembly has 120 deputies who are popularly elected for a five-year term. The Senate is composed of 102 members who are elected by municipal councils and regional assemblies and serve for six years.

From Wikipedia: Gabon · Politics (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Gabon's economy is heavily dependent on oil and other natural resources, leaving it exposed to global market shifts and climate-related risks. Oil revenue constitutes roughly 46% of the government's budget, 43% of the gross domestic product (GDP), and 81% of exports. The rich Grondin Oil Field was discovered in 1971 in 50 m (160 ft) water depths 40 km (25 mi) offshore in an anticline salt structural trap in Batanga sandstones of Maastrichtian age, but about 60% of its estimated reserves had been extracted by 1978. As of 2023, Gabon produces about 200,000 barrels per day of crude oil.

From Wikipedia: Gabon · Economy (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Gabonese cuisine is influenced by indigenous Central African and French cuisine. Traditional staples include cassava, rice, beans, taro, yam, plantain, fish, shellfish, and poultry. Seafood is particularly prevalent in coastal cities, including Libreville. Grilled tilapia, barracuda, and captain fish are common courses, usually served with fried plantains and spicy pepper sauces. Brochettes or skewers of grilled beef, chicken, or goat meat and vegetables paired with hot chili sauce are popular street foods. Poulet Nyembwe, spiced chicken cooked and flavoured in palm nut sauce, is considered the national dish. The palm nut sauce used in the dish is known as nyembwe, which means palm oil in the Myènè language.

From Wikipedia: Gabon · Culture: Cuisine (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The government of the republic is a semi-presidential system with an elected president who appoints the Council of Ministers, or Cabinet. The council, including the prime minister, is selected from the elected representatives in Parliament. Since the 1990s, the country has had a multi-party political system that is dominated by President Denis Sassou Nguesso. Sassou Nguesso is backed by his own Congolese Labour Party (French: Parti Congolais du Travail) as well as a range of smaller parties.

From Wikipedia: Republic of the Congo · Government and politics (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The economy is a mixture of village agriculture and handicrafts, an industrial sector based mainly on petroleum, support services, and a government characterized by budget problems and "overstaffing". Petroleum extraction has supplanted forestry as the mainstay of the economy. In 2008, the oil sector accounted for 65% of the GDP, 85% of government revenue, and 92% of exports. The country has untapped mineral wealth.

From Wikipedia: Republic of the Congo · Economy (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Rural Congolese often receive their news via state-run radio; broadcast media is the main source of news for the majority of Congolese. Government-owned and private media are usually pro-government. Programs are broadcast in a variety of languages. Print media is often circulated in Brazzaville and Pointe-Noire. Important news papers include Le Choc, Les Echos du Congo, L'Observateur, and Le Semaine Africaine.

From Wikipedia: Republic of the Congo · Culture: Media (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Lesotho is a parliamentary constitutional monarchy. The prime minister, currently Sam Matekane, is the head of government and has executive authority. The King of Lesotho, Letsie III, is the head of state and serves a "largely ceremonial function"; he no longer possesses any executive authority and is prohibited from actively participating in political initiatives.

From Wikipedia: Lesotho · Politics (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The economy of Lesotho is based on agriculture, livestock, manufacturing and mining, and depends workers' remittances and receipts from the SACU. Most of the population is involved in subsistence farming. The other main areas of employment are the clothing industry, mining in South Africa, and employment by the Lesotho government. The western lowlands form the main agricultural zone. Almost 50% of the population earn income through informal crop cultivation or animal husbandry with nearly two-thirds of the country's income coming from the agricultural sector. The percentage of the population living below USD Purchasing Power Parity US$1.25/day fell from 48% to 44% between 1995 and 2003.

From Wikipedia: Lesotho · Economy (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The cuisine of Lesotho includes African traditions and British influences. The national dish of Lesotho is Motoho, a fermented sorghum porridge. Some staple foods include pap, or 'mealies', a cornmeal porridge covered with a sauce consisting of vegetables. Tea and locally brewed beer are choices for beverages. Lesotho is famed for its fermented ginger beer. Chesanyama is regularly sold independently throughout Lesotho with side-dishes such as cabbage, pap and baked bean salad.

From Wikipedia: Lesotho · Sport and culture (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Malawi is a unitary presidential republic under the leadership of President Peter Mutharika since 2025. The current constitution was put into place on 18 May 1995. The branches of the government consist of executive, legislative, and judicial. The executive includes a president who is both head of state and head of government, first and second vice presidents, and the Cabinet of Malawi. The president and vice president are elected together every five years. A second vice president may be appointed by the president if so chosen, although they must be from a different party. The president appoints the members of the Cabinet, and they can be from inside or outside of the legislature.

From Wikipedia: Malawi · Government and politics (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The economy is predominantly agricultural. Over 80% of the population is engaged in subsistence farming, even though agriculture only contributed to 27% of GDP in 2013. The services sector accounts for more than half of GDP (54%), compared to 11% for manufacturing and 8% for other industries, including natural uranium mining. Malawi invests more in agriculture (as a share of GDP) than any other African country: 28% of GDP.

From Wikipedia: Malawi · Economy: Agriculture and industry (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Malawi maintains a small standing military of approximately 25,000. It consists of army, navy and air force elements. The Malawi Army originated from British colonial units formed before independence. It is made of two rifle regiments and one parachute regiment. The Malawi Air Force was established with German help in 1976, and operates a small number of transport aircraft and multi-purpose helicopters. The Malawian Navy was established in the early 1970s with Portuguese support, presently having three vessels operating on Lake Malawi, based in Monkey Bay. In 2017, Malawi signed the UN Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons.

From Wikipedia: Malawi · Military (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The name "Malawi" comes from the Maravi, a Bantu ethnic group who emigrated from the southern Congo around 1400 AD. Over the past century, ethnic distinctions have diminished to the point where there is no significant inter-ethnic friction, although regional divisions still occur. The concept of a Malawian nationality has begun to form around predominantly rural people who are generally conservative and traditionally nonviolent. The "Warm Heart of Africa" nickname was given to the country due to the perceived loving nature of the Malawian people.

From Wikipedia: Malawi · Culture (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Botswana is a parliamentary republic governed by the Constitution of Botswana. It is the longest uninterrupted democracy in Africa. Its seat of government is in Gaborone. Botswana's governing institutions were established after it became an independent nation in 1966. Botswana's governmental structure is based on both the United Kingdom's Westminster system and the Tswana people's tribal governments. Botswana has a centralised government in which national law supersedes local law. Local laws are developed by local councils and district councils. They are heavily influenced by tribal governments, which are led by the tribe's chief.

From Wikipedia: Botswana · Government and politics (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Since independence, Botswana has had one of the fastest growth rates in per capita income in the world. Formerly one of the world's poorest countries—with a GDP per capita of about US$70 per year in the late 1960s—Botswana has transformed itself into an upper middle-income country. GDP per capita grew from $439 in 1950 to $15,842 in 2018. Although Botswana was resource-abundant, a good institutional framework allowed the country to reinvest resource-income to generate stable future income. By one estimate, it has the fourth-highest gross national income at purchasing power parity in Africa, giving it a relatively high standard of living in Africa, around that of Mexico. As of 2022, the unemployment rate stood at 25.4%, while youth unemployment reached 45.41% in 2023.

From Wikipedia: Botswana · Economy (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Football is the most popular sport in Botswana. Qualifying for the 2012 and 2025 Africa Cup of Nations are the national team's highest achievement to date. Other popular sports are softball, cricket, tennis, rugby, badminton, handball, golf and track and field. Botswana is an associate member of the International Cricket Council. Botswana became a member of the International Badminton Federation and Africa Badminton Federation in 1991. The Botswana Golf Union has an amateur golf league in which golfers compete in tournaments and championships. Runner Nijel Amos won Botswana its first Olympic medal in 2012, taking silver in the 800 metres.

From Wikipedia: Botswana · Culture: Sports (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Until after the Second World War the landlocked British possession of Southern Rhodesia was not developed as an indigenous African territory, but rather as a unique state that reflected its multiracial character. This situation made it different from other lands that existed under colonial rule, as many Europeans had arrived to make permanent homes, populating the towns as traders or settling to farm the most productive soils. In 1922, faced with the decision to join the Union of South Africa as a fifth province or accept nearly full internal autonomy, the electorate cast its vote against South African integration.

From Wikipedia: Rhodesia · History: Background (CC BY-SA 4.0)

voters to be British subjects, male, 21 years of age and older, able to write their address and occupation, and then to fulfil the following financial requirements: (a) ownership of a registered mining claim in Southern Rhodesia, or (b) occupying immovable property worth £75, or (c) receiving wages or salary of £50 per annum in Southern Rhodesia. Six months' continuous residence was also required for qualifications (b) and (c).

From Wikipedia: Rhodesia · Government and politics (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Economically, Southern Rhodesia developed an economy that was narrowly based on the production of a few primary products, notably, chromium and tobacco. It was therefore vulnerable to the economic cycle. The deep recession of the 1930s gave way to a post-war boom. This boom prompted the immigration of about 200,000 whites between 1945 and 1970, taking the white population up to 307,000. A large number of these immigrants were of British working-class origin, with others coming from the Belgian Congo, Kenya, Tanzania, and later Angola and Mozambique. They established a relatively balanced economy, transforming what was once a primary producer dependent on backwoods farming into an modest industrial power which spawned a strong manufacturing sector, iron and steel industries, and modern mining ventures.

From Wikipedia: Rhodesia · Economy (CC BY-SA 4.0)

By December 1972, ZANLA had cached arms and established a vast underground network of informants and supporters in northeastern Rhodesia. As a result of the erosion of Portuguese authority in Mozambique's border provinces due to the Mozambican War of Independence, ZANLA was also able to establish external sanctuaries there. It was also in the process of cultivating a military alliance with the leading black nationalist movement in Mozambique, the Front for the Liberation of Mozambique (FRELIMO). On 21 December, a group of ZANLA insurgents under Rex Nhongo crossed into Rhodesia from Mozambique and raided an isolated commercial farm. In the successive months, this attack was followed by a succession of raids on white farmers throughout the northeastern districts of the country and resulted in several casualties among the security forces.

From Wikipedia: Rhodesia · History: Military and political escalation (1972–1976) (CC BY-SA 4.0)

As Rhodesia was a former colony of the United Kingdom, all of the sports that were born in the United Kingdom enjoyed considerable popularity in Rhodesia; especially cricket, rugby, water polo, football, netball, golf, tennis (including the Rhodesian Open Tennis Championships), lawn bowls, field hockey, etc. Just like neighbouring South Africa, Rhodesia was barred from both competing against and participating with Commonwealth member countries.

From Wikipedia: Rhodesia · Culture: Sports (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Rhodesia began to lose vital economic and military support from South Africa, which, while sympathetic to the white minority government, never accorded it diplomatic recognition. The South African government placed limits on the fuel and munitions they supplied to the Rhodesian military. They also withdrew the personnel and equipment that they had previously provided to aid the war effort, though covert military support continued.

From Wikipedia: Rhodesia · History: End of the Bush War (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The years following Rhodesia's UDI saw an unfolding series of economic, military, and political pressures placed on the country that eventually brought about majority rule, a totality of these factors rather than any one the reason for introducing change. In 2005, a conference at the London School of Economics that discussed Rhodesia's independence concluded that UDI was sparked by an existing racial conflict complicated by Cold War intrigues.

From Wikipedia: Rhodesia · History: Impact of UDI (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The Bantu people originally lived in West and Central Africa around what is today Cameroon and Nigeria. Approximately 5000 years ago, they began a millennia-long expansion into much of the continent. This event has been called the Bantu expansion; it was one of the largest human migrations in history. The Bantu are believed to have been the first to have brought iron working technology into large parts of Africa. The Bantu Expansion happened primarily through two routes: a western one via the Congo Basin and an eastern one via the African Great Lakes.

From Wikipedia: Zambia · History: Bantu origins (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Politics in Zambia takes place in a framework of a presidential representative democratic republic, whereby the president of Zambia is head of state and head of government in a pluriform multi-party system. The government exercises executive power, while legislative power is vested in the government and parliament.

From Wikipedia: Zambia · Politics (CC BY-SA 4.0)

In 2022, Zambia averages between $7.5 billion and $8 billion of exports annually. It totalled $9.1 billion worth of exports in 2018. In 2015, about 54.4% of Zambians lived below the recognised national poverty line, improved from 60.5% in 2010. Rural poverty rates were about 76.6% and urban rates at about 23.4%. The national poverty line was ZMK 214 (US$12.85) per month. As of the latest estimate in 2018 by the United Nations Development Programme, 47.9 percent of the population continued to be affected by multidimensional poverty. Unemployment and underemployment in urban areas are serious problems. Most rural Zambians are subsistence farmers.

From Wikipedia: Zambia · Economy (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Sports and games are common social aspects of Zambian culture(s) that bring people together for learning, development of skills, fun and joyous moments. Sports and games in Zambia include but are not limited to football, athletics, netball, volleyball and indigenous games such as nsolo, chiyenga, waida, hide and seek, walyako, and sojo. These are some of the indigenous games that support socialisation. All these sports and games are part of the Zambian culture(s). The fact that the games are played by more than one person makes them social and edutainment events. The history of some of these games is as old as Zambians themselves. However, Zambia started taking part in popular global sports and games mainly in 1964 Summer olympics.

From Wikipedia: Zambia · Culture: Sports and games (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The current president of Equatorial Guinea is Teodoro Obiang. The 1982 constitution of Equatorial Guinea gives him extensive powers, including naming and dismissing members of the cabinet, making laws by decree, dissolving the Chamber of Representatives, negotiating and ratifying treaties and serving as commander in chief of the armed forces. The constitution defines the nation as a unitary state. According to Human Rights Watch, the dictatorship of President Obiang used an oil boom to entrench and enrich itself further at the expense of the country's people. Since August 1979, some 12 perceived unsuccessful coup attempts have occurred. According to a March 2004 BBC profile, politics within the country were dominated by tensions with Obiang's son, Teodoro Nguema Obiang Mangue.

From Wikipedia: Equatorial Guinea · Government and politics (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Before the nation's independence from Spain, Equatorial Guinea exported cocoa, coffee and timber, mostly to its colonial ruler, Spain, but also to Germany and the UK. On 1 January 1985, the country became the first non-Francophone African member of the franc zone, adopting the CFA franc as its currency. The national currency, the ekwele, had previously been linked to the Spanish peseta.

From Wikipedia: Equatorial Guinea · Economy (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The principal means of communication within Equatorial Guinea are three state-operated FM radio stations: the BBC World Service, Radio France Internationale and Gabon-based Africa No 1 broadcast on FM in Malabo. There is also an independent radio option called Radio Macuto; it is a web-based radio and news source known for publishing news that calls out Obiang's regime. There are also five shortwave radio stations. Televisión de Guinea Ecuatorial, the television network, is state-operated. The international TV programme RTVGE is available via satellites in Africa, Europe, and the Americas and worldwide via the Internet. There are two newspapers and two magazines.

From Wikipedia: Equatorial Guinea · Culture: Media and communications (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Eswatini is an absolute monarchy with constitutional provision and Swazi law and customs. The head of state is the king or ngwenyama (lit. 'lion'), currently King Mswati III, who ascended to the throne in 1986 after the death of his father King Sobhuza II in 1982 and a period of regency. According to the country's constitution, the ngwenyama is a symbol of unity and the eternity of the Swazi nation. By tradition, the king reigns along with his mother (or a ritual substitute), the ndlovukati (lit. 'she-elephant'). The former was viewed as the administrative head of state and the latter as a spiritual and national head of state, with real power counterbalancing that of the king, but during the long reign of Sobhuza II, the role of the ndlovukati became more symbolic.

From Wikipedia: Eswatini · Politics: Monarchy (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Eswatini's economy is diverse, with agriculture, forestry and mining accounting for about 13% of GDP, manufacturing (textiles and sugar-related processing) representing 37% of GDP and services – with government services in the lead – constituting 50% of GDP. Title Deed Lands, where the bulk of high value crops are grown (sugar, forestry, and citrus), are characterised by high levels of investment and irrigation, and high productivity. About 75% of the population is employed in subsistence agriculture upon Swazi Nation Land (SNL). In contrast with the commercial farms, SNL suffers from low productivity and investment.

From Wikipedia: Eswatini · Economy (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The principal Swazi social unit is the homestead, a traditional beehive hut thatched with dry grass. In a polygamous homestead, each wife has her own hut and yard surrounded by reed fences. There are three structures for sleeping, cooking, and storage (brewing beer). Larger homesteads also have structures used as bachelors' quarters and guest accommodation. Central to the traditional homestead is the cattle byre, a circular area enclosed by large logs, interspersed with branches. The cattle byre has ritual as well as practical significance as a store of wealth and symbol of prestige. It contains sealed grain pits. Facing the cattle byre is the great hut which is occupied by the mother of the headman. The headman is central to all homestead affairs, and he is often polygamous.

From Wikipedia: Eswatini · Culture (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The country was governed by the Popular Movement of the Revolution as a unitary one-party state as the only legally permitted party in the country, though the Congo had effectively been a one-party state since the MPR's formation. Despite the constitution nominally allowing for the existence of two parties, the MPR was the only party that was allowed to nominate a candidate for the 1 November 1970 presidential election. Mobutu was confirmed in office by an implausible margin of over 10,131,000 votes against only 157 who voted "no." At parliamentary elections held two weeks later, voters were presented with a single MPR list that was approved with over 99 per cent support.

From Wikipedia: Zaire · Government and politics (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The zaïre was introduced to replace the franc as the new national currency. 100 makuta (singular likuta) equaled one zaïre. The likuta was also divided into 100 sengi. However this unit was worth very little, so the smallest coin was for 10 Sengi. The currency and the cities named above had actually already been renamed between 1966 and 1971.

From Wikipedia: Zaire · Economy (CC BY-SA 4.0)

In 1977 and 1978, Katangan rebels based in Angola launched two invasions, Shaba I and Shaba II, into the Katanga Province (renamed "Shaba" in 1972). The rebels were driven out with military assistance from the Western Bloc, particularly from the Safari Club.

From Wikipedia: Zaire · History: Growing conflict (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The concept of authenticity was derived from the MPR's professed doctrine of "authentic Zairian nationalism and condemnation of regionalism and tribalism". Mobutu defined it as being conscious of one's own personality and one's own values and of being at home in one's culture. In line with the dictates of authenticity, the name of the country was changed to the Republic of Zaire on 27 October 1971, and that of the armed forces to Zairian Armed Forces (Forces Armées Zaïroises—FAZ).

From Wikipedia: Zaire · Culture (CC BY-SA 4.0)

By 1996, tensions from the neighbouring Rwandan Civil War and genocide had spilled over to Zaire (see History of Rwanda). Rwandan Hutu militia forces (Interahamwe), who had fled Rwanda following the ascension of an RPF-led government, had been using Hutu refugee camps in eastern Zaire as bases for incursion against Rwanda. These Hutu militia forces soon allied with the Zairian armed forces (FAZ) to launch a campaign against Congolese ethnic Tutsis in eastern Zaire, known as the Banyamulenge. In turn, these Zairian Tutsis formed a militia to defend themselves against attacks. When the Zairian government began to escalate its massacres in November 1996, the Tutsi militias erupted in rebellion against Mobutu, triggering the First Congo War.

From Wikipedia: Zaire · History: First Congo War and demise of Zaire (CC BY-SA 4.0)

After the collapse of Zaire, its legacy was claimed and partially continued by various factions which emerged from Mobutu's former supporter and loyalist network. These factions were headed by former "barons" of the regime as well as Mobutu's family members, and included political parties such as the Union of Mobutist Democrats and the MPR-Fait privé. Several of these groups continued to use Zaire's symbols and invoke its traditions. In 2024, opposition politician Christian Malanga led a coup attempt against the Congolese government in the name of his self-proclaimed "New Zaire", raising the old flag of Zaire in Kinshasa. The coup attempt was defeated, and Malanga was killed.

From Wikipedia: Zaire · History: Legacy (CC BY-SA 4.0)

While allegiances dating back to the liberation struggle remain relevant, Mozambique's foreign policy has become increasingly pragmatic. The twin pillars of Mozambique's foreign policy are maintenance of good relations with its neighbours and maintenance and expansion of ties to development partners.

From Wikipedia: Mozambique · Government and politics: Foreign relations (CC BY-SA 4.0)

There are over 30,000 km (19,000 mi) of roads, but much of the network is unpaved. Like its Commonwealth neighbours, traffic circulates on the left, in spite of not having been colonised by the British. There is an international airport at Maputo, 21 other paved airports, and over 100 airstrips with unpaved runways. There are 3,750 km of navigable inland waterways. There are rail links serving principal cities and connecting the country with Malawi, Zimbabwe and South Africa.

From Wikipedia: Mozambique · Economy: Transport (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The government under President Samora Machel established a one-party state based on Marxist principles. It received diplomatic and some military support from Cuba and the Soviet Union and proceeded to crack down on opposition. Shortly after independence, the country was plagued from 1977 to 1992 by a long and violent civil war between the opposition forces of anti-communist Mozambican National Resistance (RENAMO) rebel militias and the FRELIMO regime. This conflict characterised the first decades of Mozambican independence, combined with sabotage from the neighbouring states of Rhodesia and South Africa, ineffective policies, failed central planning, and the resulting economic collapse.

From Wikipedia: Mozambique · History: Mozambican Civil War (1977–1992) (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The Makonde are known for their wood carving and elaborate masks, which are commonly used in traditional dances. There are two different kinds of wood carvings: shetani, (evil spirits), which are mostly carved in heavy ebony, tall, and elegantly curved with symbols and nonrepresentational faces; and ujamaa, which are totem-type carvings which illustrate lifelike faces of people and various figures. These sculptures are usually referred to as "family trees" because they tell stories of many generations.

From Wikipedia: Mozambique · Culture: Arts (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The Angolan government is composed of three branches of government: executive, legislative and judicial. Executive authority is exercised by the President with the assistance of the Vice-President and the Council of Ministers.

From Wikipedia: Angola · Government and politics (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Angola has diamonds, oil, gold, copper, a rich wildlife (which was dramatically depleted during the civil war), forests, and fossil fuels. Since independence, oil and diamonds have been the most important economic resources. Smallholder and plantation agriculture dramatically dropped during the Angolan Civil War, but began to recover after 2002.

From Wikipedia: Angola · Economy (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Throughout the war of independence, the three rival nationalist movements were severely hampered by political and military factionalism, as well as their inability to unite guerrilla efforts against the Portuguese. Between 1961 and 1975 the MPLA, UNITA, and the FNLA competed for influence in the Angolan population and the international community. The Soviet Union and Cuba became especially sympathetic towards the MPLA and supplied that party with arms, ammunition, funding, and training. They also backed UNITA militants until it became clear that the latter was at irreconcilable odds with the MPLA.

From Wikipedia: Angola · History: Angolan Civil War (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Angolan culture has been heavily influenced by Portuguese culture, especially in language and religion, and the culture of the indigenous ethnic groups of Angola, predominantly Bantu culture.

From Wikipedia: Angola · Culture (CC BY-SA 4.0)

São Tomé and Príncipe is a unitary state operating under a semi-presidential system. The president of the republic is elected to a five-year term by direct universal suffrage and a secret ballot, and must gain an outright majority to be elected. The president may hold up to two consecutive terms. The prime minister is appointed by the president, and the 14 members of the cabinet are chosen by the prime minister.

From Wikipedia: São Tomé and Príncipe · Politics (CC BY-SA 4.0)

São Tomé saw significant economic development following the introduction of a water-powered sugar mill in 1515, which led to the mass cultivation of sugar: "The fields are expanding and the sugar mills, too. At this time, only two sugar mills are here and another three are being built, counting the mill of the contractors, which is large. Similarly, the necessary conditions exist, such as streams and timber, to be able to build many more. And the [sugar] canes are the biggest I have ever seen in my life." Sugar plantations were organized with slave labor, and by the mid-16th century, the Portuguese settlers had turned the islands into Africa's foremost exporter of sugar.

From Wikipedia: São Tomé and Príncipe · History: Economic development in the 16th century (CC BY-SA 4.0)

São Tomé and Príncipe's Portuguese-language literature and poetry is considered some of the richest in Lusophone Africa. Other literature from the country has been written in Forro Creole, English and Caué Creole. Francisco José Tenreiro is considered one of the country's most influential writers. Other notable literary figures include Manuela Margarido, Alda Espírito Santo, Olinda Beja and Conceição Lima.

From Wikipedia: São Tomé and Príncipe · Culture: Literature (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Seychelles was uninhabited throughout most of recorded history, although simulations of Austronesian migration patterns indicate a good probability that they visited the islands. Tombs visible until 1910 at Anse Lascars on Silhouette Island have also been conjectured to belong to later Maldivian and Arab traders visiting the archipelago. Vasco da Gama and his 4th Portuguese India Armada discovered the Seychelles on 15 March 1503; the first sighting was made by Thomé Lopes aboard Rui Mendes de Brito. Da Gama's ships passed close to an elevated island, probably Silhouette Island, and the following day Desroches Island. Later, the Portuguese mapped a group of seven islands and named them The Seven Sisters. The earliest recorded landing was in January 1609, by the crew of the Ascension under Captain Alexander Sharpeigh during the fourth voyage of the British East India Company.

From Wikipedia: Seychelles · History: Early history (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Seychelles' long-term president France-Albert René came to power after his supporters overthrew the first president James Mancham on 5 June 1977 in a coup d'état and installed him as president. René was at that time the prime minister. René ruled as a strongman under a socialist one-party system until 1993, when he was forced to introduce a multi-party system. He stepped down in 2004 in favour of his vice-president, James Michel, who was re-elected in 2006, 2011 and again in 2015. On 28 September 2016, the Office of the President announced that Michel would step down effective 16 October, and that Vice President Danny Faure would complete the rest of Michel's term.

From Wikipedia: Seychelles · Politics: Political culture (CC BY-SA 4.0)

During the plantation era, cinnamon, vanilla and copra were the chief exports. In 1965, during a three-month visit to the islands, futurist Donald Prell prepared for the crown colony's Governor General an economic report containing a scenario for the future of the economy. Quoting from his report, in the 1960s, about 33% of the working population worked at plantations, and 20% worked in the public or government sector. The Indian Ocean Tracking Station on Mahé used by the United States' Air Force Satellite Control Network was closed in August 1996 after the Seychelles government attempted to raise the rent to more than $10,000,000 per year.

From Wikipedia: Seychelles · Economy (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Seychelles has the highest literacy rate of any country in sub-Saharan Africa. According to The World Factbook of the Central Intelligence Agency, as of 2018, 95.9% of the population aged 15 and over can read and write in the Seychelles.

From Wikipedia: Seychelles · Culture: Education (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Under pressure from the international community, an "Internal Settlement" was drawn up between the Smith administration of Rhodesia and moderate African nationalist parties. Meanwhile, the government continued to battle armed resistance from the Patriotic Front, a coalition of two African Leadership parties: the Zimbabwe African Peoples Union (ZAPU) and the Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU).

From Wikipedia: Zimbabwe Rhodesia · Background (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Of the 100 members of the House of Assembly, 72 were "common roll" members for whom the electorate was every adult citizen. All of these members were black Africans. Those on the previous electoral roll of Rhodesia (due to education, property and income qualifications for voter rolls) elected 20 members; although this did not in theory exclude non-whites, very few black Africans met the qualification requirements. A delimitation commission sat in 1978 to determine how to reduce the previous 50 constituencies to 20. The remaining eight seats for old voter role non-constituency members were filled by members chosen by the other 92 members of the House of Assembly once their election was complete.

From Wikipedia: Zimbabwe Rhodesia · Government of Zimbabwe Rhodesia: Legislative Branch (CC BY-SA 4.0)

During the 1995 parliamentary elections, most opposition parties, including the ZUM, boycotted the voting, resulting in a near sweep by the ruling party. When the opposition returned to the polls in 2000, they won 57 seats, only five fewer than ZANU-PF. Presidential elections were again held in 2002 amid allegations of vote-rigging, intimidation and fraud. The 2005 Zimbabwe parliamentary elections were held on 31 March, and multiple claims of vote rigging, election fraud and intimidation were made by the Movement for Democratic Change party and Jonathan Moyo, calling for investigations into 32 of the 120 constituencies. Moyo participated in the elections despite the allegations and won a seat as an independent member of Parliament.

From Wikipedia: Zimbabwe · Government and politics: Politics (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The main foreign exports of Zimbabwe are minerals, gold, and agriculture. Zimbabwe is crossed by two trans-African automobile routes: the Cairo-Cape Town Highway and the Beira-Lobito Highway. Zimbabwe is the largest trading partner of South Africa on the continent. Taxes and tariffs are high for private enterprises, while state enterprises are strongly subsidised. State regulation is costly to companies; starting or closing a business is slow and expensive. Tourism also plays a key role in the economy but has been failing in recent years. The Zimbabwe Conservation Task Force released a report in June 2007, estimating that 60% of Zimbabwe's wildlife had died since 2000 as a result of poaching and deforestation. The report warns that the loss of life combined with widespread deforestation is potentially disastrous for the tourism industry.

From Wikipedia: Zimbabwe · Economy (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The United Kingdom deemed the Rhodesian declaration an act of rebellion but did not re-establish control by force. The British government petitioned the United Nations for sanctions against Rhodesia pending unsuccessful talks with Smith's administration in 1966 and 1968. In December 1966, the organisation complied, imposing the first mandatory trade embargo on an autonomous state. These sanctions were expanded again in 1968.

From Wikipedia: Zimbabwe · History: Declaration of independence and civil war (1965–1980) (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Traditional arts in Zimbabwe include pottery, basketry, textiles, jewellery and carving. Among the distinctive qualities are symmetrically patterned woven baskets and stools carved out of a single piece of wood. Shona sculpture, which has a long cultural history, began evolving into its modern form in the mid-20th century and gained increasing international popularity. Most subjects of carved figures of stylised birds and human figures among others are made with sedimentary rock such as soapstone, as well as harder igneous rocks such as serpentine and the rare stone verdite. Zimbabwean artefacts can be found in countries like Singapore, China and Canada—for example, Dominic Benhura's statue in the Singapore Botanic Gardens.

From Wikipedia: Zimbabwe · Culture: Arts (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Namibia is one of the most free and democratic countries in Africa, with a government that maintains and protects human rights and freedoms. Namibia was ranked first on mainland Africa in the Human Freedom Index 2025, bettered only by the three island nations of Cape Verde, Mauritius, and Seychelles. However, significant issues include government corruption, policy inertia and prison overcrowding. Also, refugees are not permitted free movement.

From Wikipedia: Namibia · Government and politics: Human rights (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The trans-African automobile route – the Tripoli-Cape Town Highway and the Trans-Kalahari Corridor pass through Namibia. Namibia's economy is tied closely to South Africa's due to their shared history. In Q3 2023, the largest economic sectors were mining (18.0% of GDP), public administration (12.9%), manufacturing (10.1%), and education (9.2%).

From Wikipedia: Namibia · Economy (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Compared to neighbouring countries, Namibia has a large degree of media freedom. Over the past years, the country usually ranked in the upper quarter of the Press Freedom Index of Reporters without Borders, reaching position 21 in 2010, being on par with Canada and the best-positioned African country. The African Media Barometer shows similarly positive results. However, as in other countries, there is still mentionable influence of representatives of state and economy on media in Namibia. In 2009, Namibia dropped to position 36 on the Press Freedom Index. In 2013, it was 19th, 22nd in 2014 and 23rd in 2019, meaning that it is currently the highest ranked African country in terms of press freedom.

From Wikipedia: Namibia · Culture: Media (CC BY-SA 4.0)