Modern States of South America: Map & History

In the 1778 census, New Granada had a population of around 1,280,000. Around 40% of the population were Indians, with around 500,000 people. The next largest group were free Mestizos and Africans, at around 400,000. Whites had close to 300,000. The smallest group, at around 70,000 people, were slaves. In the current territory of Colombia, it was estimated that the population was 826,550.

From Wikipedia: Viceroyalty of New Granada · Demographics (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The military of Paraguay consist of an army, navy (including naval aviation and marine corps) and air force. Paraguay's constitution establishes the president of Paraguay as commander-in-chief of the armed forces.

From Wikipedia: Paraguay · Government and politics: Military (CC BY-SA 4.0)

For many years, the country's image was associated with the illicit trade in electronic products, weapons and drugs. However, this scenario began to change in the 2000s, with the rise of legalized businesses such as the production of soy, maize, beef, among others. Data from the Central Bank of Paraguay (BCP) showed that, in 2006, exports related to the triangulation trade (China-Paraguay-Brazil), treated by Brazil – in most cases – as smuggling and embezzlement, represented 22% of the country's GDP. In 2016, this percentage dropped to 12%. With higher tax collections through legalized employment, the country has been able to improve its infrastructure, which was precarious. Paraguay has an economic development policy based on exports and dependence on the Brazilian market prevails.

From Wikipedia: Paraguay · Economy (CC BY-SA 4.0)

On 12 October 1864, despite Paraguayan ultimatums, Brazil (allied with the Argentine Government under General Bartolomé Mitre and the rebellious Uruguayan colorados led by Gen. Venancio Flores) invaded the Republic of Uruguay in order to overthrow the government of that time (which was under the rule of the Blanco Party, an ally of López), The Paraguayans, in turn, led by the Marshal of the Republic Francisco Solano López, attacked Mato Grosso on 15 December 1864 and later declared war against Argentina on 23 March 1865. The Blanco Government was toppled and replaced by a Colorado government under General Venancio Flores on 22 February 1865. Afterward, the Argentine Republic, the Empire of Brazil and the Republic of Uruguay signed the secret Treaty of the Triple Alliance against the Paraguayan Government on 1 May 1865.

From Wikipedia: Paraguay · History: Paraguayan War (1864–1870) (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Paraguay's cultural heritage can be traced to the extensive intermarriage between the original male Spaniard settlers and indigenous Guaraní women. Modern historians, however, characterise this process as one shaped largely by sexual and economic coercion rather than voluntary union, rooted in the colonial practices of the cuñadazgo and the rancheadas. Their culture is highly influenced by various European countries, including Spain. Therefore, the Paraguayan culture is a fusion of two cultures and traditions: one European, the other, Southern Guaraní. More than 93% of Paraguayans are mestizos, making Paraguay one of the most homogeneous countries in Latin America. A characteristic of this cultural fusion is the extensive bilingualism present to this day: more than 80% of Paraguayans speak both Spanish and the indigenous language, Guaraní.

From Wikipedia: Paraguay · Culture (CC BY-SA 4.0)

During the Cisplatine War, the Río de la Plata was blockaded by the Imperial Brazilian Navy, aiming to cripple Argentine finances and resupply their positions in Colonia del Sacramento and Montevideo. Squadrons of the newly independent United Provinces of the River Plate, led by the Irish-Argentine admiral William Brown attempted to break the blockade despite numerical inferiority.

From Wikipedia: Río de la Plata · History: Cisplatine War (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The military campaign for the independence of the territory now known as Ecuador began after nearly three hundred years of Spanish colonization. Ecuador's capital, Quito, was a city of around ten thousand inhabitants. There, on August 10, 1809, came one of the first calls in Latin America for independence from Spain, led by the city's criollos, including Carlos de Montúfar and Bishop José Cuero y Caicedo.

From Wikipedia: Ecuadorian War of Independence · War: Beginning of the war (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Stone tool evidence indicates humans sporadically frequented the Monte Verde valley area as far back as 18,500 years ago. About 10,000 years ago, migrating Indigenous peoples settled in fertile valleys and coastal areas of what is present-day Chile. Settlement sites from very early human habitation include Monte Verde, Cueva del Milodón and the Pali-Aike Crater's lava tube.

From Wikipedia: Chile · History: Early history (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The current Constitution of Chile was drafted by Jaime Guzmán in 1980 and subsequently approved via a national plebiscite—regarded as "highly irregular" by some observers—in September of that year, under the military dictatorship of Augusto Pinochet. It entered into force in March 1981. After Pinochet's defeat in the 1988 plebiscite, the constitution was amended to ease provisions for future amendments to the Constitution. In September 2005, President Ricardo Lagos signed into law several constitutional amendments passed by Congress. These include eliminating the positions of appointed senators and senators for life, granting the President authority to remove the commanders-in-chief of the armed forces, and reducing the presidential term from six to four years.

From Wikipedia: Chile · Government and politics (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The Central Bank of Chile in Santiago serves as the central bank for the country. The Chilean currency is the Chilean peso (CLP). Chile is one of South America's most stable and prosperous nations, leading Latin American nations in human development, competitiveness, globalization, economic freedom, and low perception of corruption. Since July 2013, Chile is considered by the World Bank as a "high-income economy".

From Wikipedia: Chile · Economy (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Chile's most popular sport is association football. Chile has appeared in nine FIFA World Cups which includes hosting the 1962 FIFA World Cup where the national football team finished third. Other results achieved by the national football team include two Copa América titles (2015 and 2016), two runners-up positions, one silver and two bronze medals at the Pan American Games, a bronze medal at the 2000 Summer Olympics and two third places finishes in the FIFA under-17 and under-20 youth tournaments. The top league in the Chilean football league system is the Chilean Primera División, which is named by the IFFHS as the ninth strongest national football league in the world.

From Wikipedia: Chile · Culture: Sports (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The constant growth of influence and prestige of the Federal League frightened Buenos Aires (due to its federalism) and Portugal (because of its republicanism), and in August, 1816 the latter invaded the Eastern Province with the intention of destroying the protector Artigas and his revolution.

From Wikipedia: Federal League (1815–1820) · History: Downfall (CC BY-SA 4.0)

those islands that have the status of special municipality of the Netherlands alone, as distinct from the Kingdom in its entirety.

From Wikipedia: Netherlands Antilles · Political grouping: Current constitutional grouping (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Tourism, petroleum transshipment and oil refinement (on Curaçao), as well as offshore finance were the mainstays of this small economy, which was closely tied to the outside world. The islands enjoyed a high per capita income and a well-developed infrastructure as compared with other countries in the region.

From Wikipedia: Netherlands Antilles · Economy (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The origins of the population and location of the islands gave the Netherlands Antilles a mixed culture.

From Wikipedia: Netherlands Antilles · Culture (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Of the five islands, Sint Maarten and Curaçao voted for status aparte, Saba and Bonaire voted for closer ties with the Netherlands, and Sint Eustatius voted to stay within the Netherlands Antilles.

From Wikipedia: Netherlands Antilles · History: Dissolution (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The territory which would come to be known as Brazil was claimed by Portugal on 22 April 1500, when the navigator Pedro Álvares Cabral landed on its coast. Permanent settlement followed in 1532, and for the next 300 years the Portuguese slowly expanded westwards until they had reached nearly all of the borders of modern Brazil. In 1808, the army of French Emperor Napoleon I invaded Portugal, forcing the Portuguese royal family—the House of Braganza, a branch of the thousand-year-old Capetian dynasty—into exile. They re-established themselves in the Brazilian city of Rio de Janeiro, which became the unofficial seat of the Portuguese Empire.

From Wikipedia: Empire of Brazil · History: Independence and early years (CC BY-SA 4.0)

When enacted in 1824, the Imperial Constitution created the Conselho Geral de Província (Provincial General Council), the legislature of the provinces. This council was composed of either 21 or 13 elected members, depending on the size of a province's population. All "resolutions" (laws) created by the councils required approval by the General Assembly, with no right of appeal. Provincial Councils also had no authority to raise revenues, and their budgets had to be debated and ratified by the General Assembly. Provinces had no autonomy and were entirely subordinate to the national government as the country was a unitary state.

From Wikipedia: Empire of Brazil · Government: Provincial and local government (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Brazil's international trade reached a total value of Rs 79.000:000$000 between 1834 and 1839. This continued to increase every year until it reached Rs 472.000:000$000 between 1886 and 1887: an annual growth rate of 3.88% since 1839. The absolute value of exports from the Empire in 1850 was the highest in Latin America, and triple that of Argentina which was in fourth place. Brazil would keep its high standing in exports and general economic growth until the end of the monarchy. Brazilian economic expansion, especially after 1850, compared well with that of the United States and European nations. The national tax revenue amounted to Rs 11.795:000$000 in 1831 and rose to Rs 160.840:000$000 in 1889. By 1858, national tax revenues ranked as the eighth-largest in the world. Imperial Brazil was, despite its progress, a country where wealth was very unequally distributed.

From Wikipedia: Empire of Brazil · Economy: Overview (CC BY-SA 4.0)

This period of calm came to an end in 1863, when the British consul in Rio de Janeiro nearly sparked a war by issuing an abusive ultimatum to Brazil in response to two minor incidents (see Christie Question). The Brazilian government refused to yield, and the consul issued orders for British warships to capture Brazilian merchant vessels as indemnity. Brazil prepared itself for the imminent conflict, and coastal defenses were given permission to fire upon any British warship that tried to capture Brazilian merchant ships. The Brazilian government then severed diplomatic ties with Britain in June 1863.

From Wikipedia: Empire of Brazil · History: Paraguayan War (CC BY-SA 4.0)

In the first years after independence, Brazilian literature was still heavily influenced by Portuguese literature and its predominant Neoclassical style. In 1837, Gonçalves de Magalhães published the first work of Romanticism in Brazil, beginning a new era in the nation. The next year, 1838, saw the first play performed by Brazilians with a national theme, which marked the birth of Brazilian theater. Until then themes were often based on European works even if not performed by foreign actors. Romanticism at that time was regarded as the literary style that best fitted Brazilian literature, which could reveal its uniqueness when compared to foreign literature.

From Wikipedia: Empire of Brazil · Culture: Literature and theater (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The nation enjoyed considerable international prestige during the final years of the Empire and had become an emerging power in the international arena. While Pedro II was receiving medical treatment in Europe, the parliament passed, and Princess Isabel signed on 13 May 1888, the Golden Law, which completely abolished slavery in Brazil. Predictions of economic and labor disruption caused by the abolition of slavery proved to be unfounded. Nonetheless, the end of slavery was the final blow to any remaining belief in the crown's neutrality, and this resulted in an explicit shift of support to Republicanism by the ultraconservatives—themselves backed by rich and powerful coffee farmers who held great political, economic and social power in the country.

From Wikipedia: Empire of Brazil · History: Fall (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Before a new constitution could be written by the 1821 Congress of Cúcuta, the 1819 Congress of Angostura appointed Bolívar and Santander president and vice president, respectively. Under the Constitution of Cúcuta, the country was divided into twelve departments, each governed by an intendant. Departments were further divided into thirty-six provinces, each headed by a governor, who had overlapping powers with the intendant. Military affairs at the department level were overseen by a commandant general, who could also be the intendant. The central government appointed all three offices. The central government, which temporarily was to reside in Bogotá, consisted of a presidency, a bicameral congress, and a high court (the Alta Corte).

From Wikipedia: Gran Colombia · Government (CC BY-SA 4.0)

On 3 June 1828, Bolívar declared war on Peru over Gran Colombian claims on the Peruvian territories of Jaén and Maynas. The war ended in the Treaty of Guayaquil, which was signed on 22 September 1829 and went into effect on 27 October 1829.

From Wikipedia: Gran Colombia · History: War with Peru (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The earliest evidences of human presence in Peruvian territory have been dated to approximately 12,500 BCE in the Huaca Prieta settlement. Andean societies were based on agriculture, using techniques such as irrigation and terracing; camelid husbandry and fishing were also important. Organization relied on reciprocity and redistribution because these societies had no notion of market or money. The oldest known complex society in Peru, the Caral-Supe civilization, flourished along the coast of the Pacific Ocean between 3,000 and 1,800 BCE. These early developments were followed by archaeological cultures that developed mostly around the coastal and Andean regions throughout Peru. The Cupisnique culture which flourished from around 1000 to 200 BCE along what is now Peru's Pacific coast was an example of early pre-Inca culture.

From Wikipedia: Peru · History: Prehistory and Pre-Columbian Peru (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Peru is a unitary semi-presidential republic with a multi-party system. The country has maintained a liberal democratic system under its 1993 constitution, which replaced a constitution that leaned the government to a federation to authorize more power to the president. It is also a unitary republic, in which the central government holds the most power and can create administrative divisions.

From Wikipedia: Peru · Government and politics (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Peru's economy is the 46th largest in the world (ranked by Purchasing Power Parity (PPP)). The World Bank classifies its income level as upper middle. Peru was, as of 2011, one of the world's fastest-growing economies owing to an economic boom experienced since the 2000s. However, by 2026, following the conclusion of the commodity boom in 2014, Peru experienced a substantial deceleration in its per capita GDP growth. It has an above-average Human Development Index (HDI) of 0.794 (as of 2023), which has been steadily improving over the years. Historically, the country's economic performance has been tied to exports, which provide hard currency to finance imports and external debt payments. Although they have provided substantial revenue, self-sustained growth and a more egalitarian distribution of income have proven elusive.

From Wikipedia: Peru · Economy (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Atahualpa (or Atahuallpa), the last Sapa Inca, became emperor when he defeated and executed his older half-brother Huáscar in a civil war sparked by the death of their father, Inca Huayna Capac. In December 1532, a party of conquistadors (supported by the Chankas, Huancas, Cañaris and Chachapoyas as Indian auxiliaries) led by Francisco Pizarro defeated and captured the Inca Emperor Atahualpa in the Battle of Cajamarca. After years of preliminary exploration and military conflicts, it was the first step in a long campaign that took decades of fighting but ended in Spanish victory and colonization of the region known as the Viceroyalty of Peru with its capital at Lima, which was then known as La Ciudad de los Reyes (The City of Kings).

From Wikipedia: Peru · History: Conquest and colonial period (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The idea of sport dates back to the arrival of the Spanish in the 16th century, though many games and other native forms of entertainment predated the colonial era. More recently, the American ideology of physical education linked to commercialization has had widespread appeal. Sports in the country are divided into several sports federations (one for each sports practice) that are under the tutelage of the highest state entity to regulate their practice, the Peruvian Sports Institute (IPD). Most of the sports federations are based in the Villa Deportiva Nacional in Lima. Peru's largest stadium is Estadio Monumental "U" which has a capacity of over 80,000, making it the second largest stadium in South America. The country's national stadium is the Estadio Nacional.

From Wikipedia: Peru · Culture: Sport (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Bolivia has been governed by democratically elected governments since 1982; prior to that, it was governed by various dictatorships. Presidents Hernán Siles Zuazo (1982–1985) and Víctor Paz Estenssoro (1985–1989) began a tradition of ceding power peacefully which has continued, although three presidents have stepped down in the face of extraordinary circumstances: Gonzalo Sánchez de Lozada in 2003, Carlos Mesa in 2005, and Evo Morales in 2019.

From Wikipedia: Bolivia · Government and politics (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Agriculture is less relevant in the GDP compared to the rest of Latin America. The country produces close to 10 million tons of sugarcane per year and is the 10th largest producer of soybean in the world. It also has considerable yields of maize, potato, sorghum, banana, rice, and wheat. The largest exports are based on soy (soybean meal and soybean oil). The culture of soy was brought by Brazilians to the country: in 2006, almost 50% of soy producers in Bolivia were people from Brazil or descendants of Brazilians. The first Brazilian producers began to arrive in the 1990s. Before that, there was a lot of land that was not used or where only subsistence agriculture was practiced. The most lucrative agricultural product continues to be coca, of which Bolivia is the world's third largest cultivator.

From Wikipedia: Bolivia · Economy: Agriculture (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The struggle for independence started in Chuquisaca (present-day Sucre) on 25 May 1809, known as the first cry of freedom in Latin America, which was followed by the La Paz revolution on 16 July 1809. The La Paz revolution marked a complete split with the Spanish government, while the Chuquisaca Revolution established a local independent junta in the name of the Spanish king deposed by Napoleon Bonaparte. Both revolutions were short-lived and defeated by the Spanish authorities in the Viceroyalty of the Rio de La Plata, but the following year the Spanish American wars of independence raged across the continent.

From Wikipedia: Bolivia · History: Independence and subsequent wars (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Bolivian culture has been heavily influenced by the Spanish, the Aymara, and the Quechua, as well as the popular cultures of Latin America as a whole. The cultural development is divided into three distinct periods: precolumbian, colonial, and republican. Important archaeological ruins, gold and silver ornaments, stone monuments, ceramics, and weavings remain from several important pre-Columbian cultures. Major ruins include Tiwanaku, El Fuerte de Samaipata, Inkallaqta and Iskanwaya. The country abounds in other sites that are difficult to reach and have seen little archaeological exploration.

From Wikipedia: Bolivia · Culture (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Human presence in the region now known as Uruguay dates back approximately 13,000 years, with evidence of hunter-gatherer communities. It is estimated that at the time of the first contact with Europeans in the 16th century, there were about 9,000 Charrúa and 6,000 Chaná and some Guaraní island settlements.

From Wikipedia: Uruguay · History: Prehistory (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Uruguay is a representative democratic republic with a presidential system. The Uruguayan Constitution establishes a separation of powers intended to provide a system of checks and balances and members of government are elected for a five-year term by a universal suffrage system. Uruguay is a unitary state: justice, education, health, security, foreign policy and defence are all administered nationwide.

From Wikipedia: Uruguay · Government and politics: Government (CC BY-SA 4.0)

In 1991, the country experienced an increase in strikes to obtain wage compensation to offset inflation and to oppose the privatizations desired by the government of Luis Alberto Lacalle. A general strike was called in 1992, and the privatization policy was widely rejected by the referendum. In 1994 and 1995, Uruguay faced economic difficulties caused by the liberalization of foreign trade, which increased the trade deficit. The Montevideo Gas Company and the Pluna airline were turned over to the private sector, but the pace of privatization slowed down in 1996. Uruguay experienced a major economic and financial crisis between 1999 and 2002, principally a spillover effect from the economic problems of Argentina. The economy contracted by 11%, and unemployment climbed to 14–21%.

From Wikipedia: Uruguay · Economy (CC BY-SA 4.0)

President Jorge Pacheco declared a state of emergency in 1968, followed by a further suspension of civil liberties in 1972. In 1973, amid increasing economic and political turmoil, the armed forces, asked by President Juan María Bordaberry, disbanded Parliament and established a civilian-military regime. The CIA-backed campaign of political repression and state terror involving intelligence operations and assassination of opponents was called Operation Condor.

From Wikipedia: Uruguay · History: Civic-military dictatorship (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The folk and popular music of Uruguay shares its gaucho roots with Argentina and the tango. One of the most famous tangos, "La cumparsita" (1917), was written by the Uruguayan composer Gerardo Matos Rodríguez. The candombe is a folk dance performed at Carnival, especially Uruguayan Carnival, mainly by Uruguayans of African ancestry. The guitar is the preferred musical instrument, and in a popular traditional contest called the payada, two singers, each with a guitar, take turns improvising verses to the same tune. Folk music is called canto popular and includes some guitar players and singers such as Los Olimareños, and Numa Moraes.

From Wikipedia: Uruguay · Culture: Music (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The territory of modern Argentina was a subset (approx. 1/3) of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata, a colony of Spain which also included present-day Bolivia, Uruguay, part of Chile and Peru and most of Paraguay. Argentina emerged as an independent state de facto on 25 May 1810 under the name of the United Provinces of the South. The May Revolution in Buenos Aires began the Argentine War of Independence, which it won. The country was renamed the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata. Modern Bolivia and Paraguay were lost during the conflict and became new states. Uruguay was invaded and annexed by Brazil in 1816, until the Thirty-Three Orientals led an insurrection to rejoin the United Provinces. This began the Cisplatine War, which ended with the Treaty of Montevideo that made Uruguay a new state.

From Wikipedia: Argentine Confederation · History: Background (CC BY-SA 4.0)

In 1828, after Argentine forces returned to Buenos Aires from the war, federalist governor Manuel Dorrego was overthrown and executed by Juan Lavalle, of the Unitarian Party. The latter began a campaign against all federals, supported by José María Paz in Córdoba, who deposed Juan Bautista Bustos and took similar measures. The rancher Juan Manuel de Rosas, who joined parties pragmatically, organized the resistance against Lavalle. He allied with Estanislao López, caudillo and ruler of Santa Fe Province, and they defeated Lavalle at the Battle of Márquez Bridge in April 1829. When Rosas entered the city of Buenos Aires in November of that year, he was hailed both as a victorious military leader and as the head of the Federalists. Lavalle was forced out of government and the Legislature restored.

From Wikipedia: Argentine Confederation · History: Coup, civil war, and unrest (CC BY-SA 4.0)

A 2003 Amnesty International report was critical that there were scarce few prosecutions for human rights violations committed by security forces, and those only in police courts, which are not considered impartial or independent. There are allegations that the security forces routinely torture prisoners. There are reports of prisoners having died while in police custody. Sometimes the legal process can be delayed until the suspect can be released after the time limit for detention without trial is exceeded. Prisons are overcrowded and conditions in detention centers are "abominable".

From Wikipedia: Ecuador · Government and politics: Human rights (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Ecuador has a developing economy that is highly dependent on commodities, namely petroleum and agricultural products. The country is classified as an upper-middle-income country. Ecuador's economy is the eighth largest in Latin America and experienced an average growth of 4.6% between 2000 and 2006. From 2007 to 2012, Ecuador's GDP grew at an annual average of 4.3 percent, above the average for Latin America and the Caribbean, which was 3.5%, according to the United Nations' Economic Commission for Latin American and the Caribbean (ECLAC). Ecuador was able to maintain relatively superior growth during the 2008 financial crisis. In January 2009, the Central Bank of Ecuador (BCE) put the 2010 growth forecast at 6.88%. In 2011, its GDP grew at 8% and ranked third highest in Latin America, behind Argentina (2nd) and Panama (1st).

From Wikipedia: Ecuador · Economy (CC BY-SA 4.0)

In 1972, a "revolutionary and nationalist" military junta overthrew the government of Velasco Ibarra. The coup d'état was led by General Guillermo Rodríguez and executed by navy commander Jorge Queirolo G. The new president exiled José María Velasco to Argentina. He remained in power until 1976, when he was removed by another military government. That military junta was led by Admiral Alfredo Poveda, who was declared chairman of the Supreme Council. The Supreme Council included two other members: General Guillermo Durán Arcentales and General Luis Pintado. The civil society more and more insistently called for democratic elections. Colonel Richelieu Levoyer, Government Minister, proposed and implemented a Plan to return to the constitutional system through universal elections. This plan enabled the new democratically elected president to assume the duties of the executive office.

From Wikipedia: Ecuador · History: Military governments (1972–79) (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Early literature in colonial Ecuador, as in the rest of Spanish America, was influenced by the Spanish Golden Age. One of the earliest examples is Jacinto Collahuazo, an Amerindian chief of a northern village in today's Ibarra, born in the late 1600s. Despite the early repression and discrimination of the native people by the Spanish, Collahuazo learned to read and write in Castilian, but his work was written in Quechua. The use of Quipu was banned by the Spanish, and in order to preserve their work, many Inca poets had to resort to the use of the Latin alphabet to write in their native Quechua language. The history behind the Inca drama "Ollantay", the oldest literary piece in existence for any Amerindian language in America, shares some similarities with the work of Collahuazo. Collahuazo was imprisoned and all of his work burned.

From Wikipedia: Ecuador · Culture: Literature (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The territory of the republic was divided into provinces. Each province was composed of one or more cantons, each canton was divided into several districts.

From Wikipedia: Republic of New Granada · Provinces (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Provided, then, with all the legal elements granted by the assemblies of the three states, Santa Cruz decreed the establishment of the Peru–Bolivian Confederation, by decree given in Lima on 28 October 1836. A congress known today as the Congress of Tacna (Spanish: Congreso de Tacna) was ordered to meet in Tacna to establish the foundations of the confederation. A customs office was also opened in Arica, which employed both South Peruvians and Bolivians.

From Wikipedia: Peru–Bolivian Confederation · History: Establishment (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Argentina: after Bolivia occupied and annexed the disputed territory of Tarija, Argentina declared war on the Confederation on 19 May 1837. After the war ended, Argentina negotiated with the new Bolivian state over the territories, and Tarija ultimately remained in Bolivia.

From Wikipedia: Peru–Bolivian Confederation · Government and politics: Foreign relations (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Like Orbegoso, Santa Cruz also had many opponents and enemies born in the frequent caudillo clashes of the early years of Peru's republican history. Among those enemies were powerful characters such as Agustín Gamarra and Ramón Castilla, who at the time were exiled in Chile.

From Wikipedia: Peru–Bolivian Confederation · History: Political instability and wars (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Around the same time, North Peru seceded from the Confederation on 30 July, but was nevertheless attacked and defeated by the United Restoration Army in the Battle of Portada de Guías of 21 August. Meanwhile, Confederate troops in Callao were besieged by the same army.

From Wikipedia: Peru–Bolivian Confederation · History: Dissolution (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The economy of the then Province of São Pedro of Rio Grande do Sul of the Empire of Brazil was mainly focused on the production of jerky and leather. The province depended entirely on the domestic market, but the overvalued exchange rate and the tariff benefits then offered meant that imported beef was cheaper. Thus, the estancieiros of the region, among them the famous Bento Gonçalves, began a rebellion against the Imperial Government. After a meeting, it was decided that armed militias would be formed under the leadership of Gonçalves inside the province to take over the provincial government.

From Wikipedia: Riograndense Republic · History: Background (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The Imperial Brazilian Navy controlled the main communications media of the province, the Patos Lagoon, between Porto Alegre, Pelotas and Rio Grande, and most of the navigable rivers. In spite of this, it was constantly attacked by ragamuffins, when near the ravines of the rivers. On 1 February 1838, a troop of two thousand rags and a battery of artillery were able to attack two gunboats and a barge on the Caí River, killing almost all the sailors, imprisoning one of the commanders and capturing their ships, thus beginning the creation of the Riograndense Navy.

From Wikipedia: Riograndense Republic · Government: Armed forces (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Until the year 1840, the rebels were arguably in the ascent, with several victories in the military field. After this period, there was a decline their fortunes, beginning with the fall of Laguna. With the Imperials controlling the key cities, the rebels were limited to the interior, and soon internal quarrels began.

From Wikipedia: Riograndense Republic · History: Dissolution (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The Riograndense Republic is symbolically perennial in the flag and coat of arms of the state of Rio Grande do Sul, just as other Brazilian states maintained in their civic symbols evocations of relevant deeds. Its territory derived from the partial split of the Province of São Pedro do Rio Grande do Sul, which had its limits totally defined in relation to Uruguay only after the end of the Ragamuffin War (1835–45). After the proclamation of the Brazilian Republic (1889), the whole territory of the Province became one of the federal units of Brazil, the state of Rio Grande do Sul.

From Wikipedia: Riograndense Republic · Legacy (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The central figure in the overthrow of Rosas, Entre Ríos Governor Justo José de Urquiza, was granted the power of a head of state by the Palermo Protocols of 6 April 1852. This provoked resistance in Buenos Aires, however, which then refused to ratify the San Nicolás Agreement of 31 May. The prospect of having the Argentine Congress headquartered in Santa Fe proved especially objectionable, and Urquiza's 12 June appointment of former President Vicente López y Planes failed to turn public opinion in Buenos Aires. Colonel Bartolomé Mitre rallied the Assembly against the San Nicolás Accords. The most contentious issue remained the Buenos Aires Customs, which remained under the control of the city government and was the chief source of public revenue.

From Wikipedia: State of Buenos Aires · Establishment (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Even though the majority of the mid-century reforms came from the Liberal Party, their beginnings can be traced to the last two administrations of the 1840s decade. In this sense, the government of Pedro Alcántara Herrán (1841–1845) and the first mandate of Tomás Cipriano de Mosquera (1845–1849) stood out for their modernizing tone, which included among other measures the compilation of Granadine laws, the liberation of trade, the reduction of import and export customs duties, the formation of normal schools for the instruction of teachers, the promotion of the Panama railroad, the control of ecclesiastical jurisdiction and freedom of the press.

From Wikipedia: Granadine Confederation · History: Background (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The laws of 1859 resulted from the necessity that President Mariano Ospina Rodríguez identified of endowing the federal Government with the capacity to intervene effectively in the affairs of the states of the Confederation. With this objective in mind, the federal president used the conservative majorities in Congress to promote a series of laws and reforms to the Constitution of 1858, which from his perspective would allow the federal Executive to maintain order in the country. However, it would be the content of the reforms that would promote the liberal uprising of 1860, which in turn would lead to the overthrow, almost without real opportunity to oppose it, of the system that was intended to be defended through these measures.

From Wikipedia: Granadine Confederation · Politics: The laws of 1859 (CC BY-SA 4.0)

In the first place, throughout the 19th century, the Colombian population continued being in essence rural, with self-sufficient spaces that were poorly interconnected among themselves and in sustained demographic growth despite the wars. In practice, during the period a national exchange market was not constituted that would dynamize production or represent a real source of accumulation for national producers. The only communication route that allowed some interregional exchange was the Magdalena River, which in essence focused on allowing the departure of products abroad and on facilitating the arrival of luxury goods toward the interior of the country.

From Wikipedia: Granadine Confederation · Economy: The economic dynamics of the second part of the 19th century (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Even though the Constitution of 1858 had legalized federalism, the politics of the president Mariano Ospina Rodríguez favored centralism. This conservativism clashed with the wishes of the states which wanted more power and autonomy.

From Wikipedia: Granadine Confederation · History: Civil war (CC BY-SA 4.0)