Ancient States of North Africa: Map & History

The specific date, circumstances, and motivations concerning Carthage's founding are unknown. Most surviving accounts of the city's origins come from Latin and Greek literature, which are generally legendary in nature and reflect Greco-Roman culture values.

From Wikipedia: Ancient Carthage · History: Foundation narratives (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The Carthaginian republic was characterized by an intricate system of checks and balances, a complex administrative system, civil society, and a fairly high degree of public accountability and participation. The most detailed information about the Carthaginian government after this point comes from the Greek philosopher Aristotle, whose fourth-century BC treatise, Politics, discusses Carthage as its only non-Greek example.

From Wikipedia: Ancient Carthage · Government and politics: Family oligarchy (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Carthage's commerce extended by sea throughout the Mediterranean and perhaps as far as the Canary Islands, and by land across the Sahara desert. According to Aristotle, the Carthaginians had commercial treaties with various trading partners to regulate their exports and imports. Their merchant ships, which surpassed in number even those of the original Phoenician city-states, visited every major port of the Mediterranean, as well as Britain and the Atlantic coast of Africa. These ships were able to carry over 100 tons of goods. Archaeological discoveries show evidence of all kinds of exchanges, from the vast quantities of tin needed for bronze-based civilizations, to all manner of textiles, ceramics, and fine metalwork.

From Wikipedia: Ancient Carthage · Economy (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Since at least the reign of Mago I in the early sixth century BC, Carthage regularly utilized its military to advance its commercial and strategic interests. According to Polybius, Carthage relied heavily, though not exclusively, on foreign mercenaries, especially in overseas warfare. Modern historians regard this as an oversimplification, as many foreign troops were actually auxiliaries from allied or client states, provided through formal agreements, tributary obligations, or military pacts. The Carthaginians maintained close relations, sometimes through political marriages, with the rulers of various tribes and kingdoms, most notably the Numidians (based in modern northern Algeria). These leaders would in turn provide their respective contingent of forces, sometimes even leading them in Carthaginian campaigns.

From Wikipedia: Ancient Carthage · Military: Army (CC BY-SA 4.0)

As with most other aspects of Carthaginian civilization, little is known about its culture and society beyond what can be inferred from foreign accounts and archaeological findings. As a Phoenician people, the Carthaginians had an affinity for trade, seafaring, and exploration; most foreign accounts about their society focus on their commercial and maritime prowess. Unlike the Phoenicians, however, the Carthaginians also became known for their military expertise and sophisticated republican government; their approach to warfare and politics feature heavily in foreign accounts.

From Wikipedia: Ancient Carthage · Society and culture (CC BY-SA 4.0)

At the height of its power before the First Punic War, Greek and Roman observers often wrote admiringly about Carthage's wealth, prosperity, and sophisticated republican government. But during the Punic Wars and the years following Carthage's destruction, accounts of its civilization generally reflected biases and even propaganda shaped by these conflicts. Aside from some grudging respect for the military brilliance of Hannibal, or for its economic and naval prowess, Carthage was often portrayed as the political, cultural, and military foil to Rome, a place where "cruelty, treachery, and irreligion" reigned. The dominant influence of Greco-Roman perspectives in Western history left in place this slanted depiction of Carthage for centuries.

From Wikipedia: Ancient Carthage · Legacy (CC BY-SA 4.0)

For much of the Libyan civil war, Cyrenaica was largely under the control of the National Transitional Council while Tripolitania and Fezzan remained under Gaddafi's government control. Some proposed a "two-state solution" to the conflict, with Cyrenaica becoming an independent state, but this concept was strongly rejected by both sides, and the three regions were united again in October 2011, as rebel forces took Tripolitania and Fezzan and the government collapsed.

From Wikipedia: Cyrenaica · History: Libyan civil war (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Christianity is known to have existed in Mauretania as early as the 3rd century. It spread rapidly in these areas despite its relatively late appearance in the region. Although it was adopted in the urban areas of Mauretania Caesariensis, the hinterlands retained the Romano-Berber religion.

From Wikipedia: Mauretania · Religion (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Bocchus I reigned over Mauretania from 110 BC to 80 BC but his reign probably began earlier. Departing from the strict neutrality of his predecessors, he took an active role in regional conflicts. He initially aligned himself with the Numidian king Jugurtha, sealing their alliance by giving him his daughter in marriage. During the Jugurthine War, Bocchus fought alongside Jugurtha; however, diplomatic negotiations with the Roman aristocrat Lucius Cornelius Sulla persuaded him to betray his ally. In exchange for the western part of Numidian territory, Bocchus lured Jugurtha into a diplomatic meeting, captured him, and handed him over to Rome. Following this territorial expansion, the Massaesyli, the Berbers inhabiting western Numidia became citizens of Mauretania.

From Wikipedia: Mauretania · History: Jugurthine War (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The emergence of Libyan monarchical states was probably stimulated, at least partly, from a combination of internal developments and external political pressure from Carthage. Internally, population growth and the widespread adoption of iron technology significantly increased the agricultural carrying capacity of the land. This allowed for more complex social organization and ultimately led to institutionalized inequality. In addition, a key internal factor was the military shift in the early third century BC from war chariots to cavalry. This change greatly increased mobility and allowed chiefs to extend their authority over much larger areas.

From Wikipedia: Numidia · History: Background (CC BY-SA 4.0)

King Massinissa, the first ruler of unified Numidia, sought to embody the full stature of a monarch—almost in the likeness of a god. During his reign, the cult of the divine king emerged strongly; coins were struck with his image, temples were later dedicated to him, and he maintained both an army and a fleet, which even Rome relied on in the East.

From Wikipedia: Numidia · State organization: Political power (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Strabo states that Massinissa transformed many Berbers into farmers and civilized them. The Massylian kingdom already had extensive agricultural lands, expanded further by his conquests; in some areas the soil was so fertile that simply scratching it after harvest allowed fallen seeds to yield a new crop. Polybius praised his agricultural policy: Massinissa developed the greatly enlarged royal domains and set an example by farming them himself. Towns named with the epithet Regia or Regius (Bulla Regia, Zama Regia, Hippo Regius, Thimida Regia) likely belonged to these royal estates. Diodorus notes that he left each son a fully equipped farm of about 875 hectares. Peace in his kingdom was the key factor that allowed Numidian agriculture to flourish under his rule.

From Wikipedia: Numidia · Agriculture: Grain (CC BY-SA 4.0)

When Micipsa died in 118 BC, he was succeeded jointly by his two sons Hiempsal I and Adherbal and Jugurtha, who was very popular among the Numidians. Hiempsal and Jugurtha quarrelled immediately after the death of Micipsa. Jugurtha orchestrated the assassination of his cousin Hiempsal and expelled his other cousin, Adherbal, from Cirta. Adherbal fled to Rome to seek the Senate's protection. However, Jugurtha had already bribed influential Romans, prompting the Senate to divide Numidia in 114 BC: western Numidia was given to Jugurtha, while Adherbal retained the eastern portion. Jugurtha, having married the daughter of Bocchus, king of the western Mauri, amassed a large army and invaded Adherbal's territory in 112 BC. Adherbal retreated to Cirta, where he endured a two-year siege. Starving, he surrendered, but Jugurtha executed him along with many Italians living in the city.

From Wikipedia: Numidia · History: War with Rome (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The term "Royal Numidian Architecture" was coined for the monuments that were constructed by the Numidian kings. These monuments consist of tombs, tumuli and sanctuaries. Some examples of these structures are the mausoleum of Thugga, the tomb of Beni Rhenane, a tomb at Henchur Burgu in Djerba as well as two tumulus tombs known as the Medracen and the Royal Mausoleum of Mauretania. There are also altars that were built at Simitthu and Kbor Klib. All of these monuments were built within the area ruled by Massinissa and his descendants.

From Wikipedia: Numidia · Culture: Architecture (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Juba, succeeding his father Hiempsal II in 50 BC, sought to take advantage of the civil war between Caesar and Pompey to free himself from Roman control. From the city of Hippo, which he made his capital, he rallied exiles who helped him organize his native troops effectively. After Caesar took Italy from the Senate's faction, Attius Varus, a lieutenant of Pompey and leader of the senatorial army, proclaimed his general's authority in Africa and allied with Juba. Together, they defeated the army of Gaius Scribonius Curio, Caesar's lieutenant, at the Battle of the Bagradas in July 49 BC. Following Pompey's orders, Varus blocked African ports to halt shipments of goods, leading to famine in Italy, where even slaves began to starve. However, an agreement was reached between the rival leaders, who, realizing the need to avoid depopulating Italy, eventually neutralized the food embargo.

From Wikipedia: Numidia · History: Roman civil war and the end of the Numidian Kingdom (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The Vandals, under their new king Gaiseric (also known as Genseric or Geiseric), crossed to Africa in 429, beginning the Vandalic conquest of Roman Africa. Although their numbers are unknown and some historians debate the validity of estimates, based on Procopius's assertion that the Vandals and Alans numbered 80,000 when they moved to North Africa, Peter Heather estimates that they could have fielded an army of around 15,000–20,000. According to Procopius, the Vandals came to Africa at the request of Bonifacius, the military ruler of the region. However, it has been suggested that the Vandals migrated to Africa in search of safety; they had been attacked by a Roman army in 422 and had failed to seal a treaty with them. Advancing eastward along the African coast, the Vandals laid siege to the walled city of Hippo Regius in 430.

From Wikipedia: Vandal Kingdom · History: Establishment (CC BY-SA 4.0)

The administration of the Vandal Kingdom bears a close resemblance to the Roman provincial administration of Africa. While it was staffed by local Africans, the currency and taxation system were a creative adaptation of Roman models and were similar to those administered by the Romans. Vandal troops were also fashioned similarly to the Roman model. Power and wealth in the Vandal state were led by a military landowning aristocracy, and the political elite replaced and expropriated the largely absentee senatorial aristocracy. Other main sources of income included its takeover of the major grain and oil export region of the Romans, which had hitherto been the source of food for the major city of Rome. The wealth that the Vandal leaders accumulated was spent on luxurious town houses and religious buildings, according to literary sources and archeology.

From Wikipedia: Vandal Kingdom · Administration (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Historians since Edward Gibbon have seen the capture of North Africa by the Vandals and Alans as the "deathblow" and "the greatest single blow" to the Western Roman Empire in its struggle to survive. Prior to the Vandals, northern Africa was prosperous and peaceful, requiring only a small percentage of the Roman Empire's military forces, and was an important source of taxes for the empire and grain for the city of Rome. The scholar Josephus in the 1st century AD said that North Africa fed Rome for eight months of the year, with the other four months of needed grain coming from Egypt.

From Wikipedia: Vandal Kingdom · History: The grain trade (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Thrasamund's successor Hilderic (523–530) was the Vandal king who was most tolerant of Trinitarian Christians. He granted religious freedom, and consequently Chalcedonian synods were once more held in North Africa. However, he had little interest in war and left it to his nephew Hoamer. When the Vandals and the Berber Frexes tribe came into conflict yet again, Hoamer suffered a decisive defeat by the Frexes led by Guenfan and his son Antalas. Following this, the Arian faction within the royal family led a revolt, and Hoamer's cousin Gelimer (530–534) became king. Hilderic, Hoamer, and their relatives were thrown into prison. In 533, Hilderic was executed when the Byzantine army approached Carthage. Byzantine Emperor Justinian I declared war, with the stated intention of restoring Hilderic to the Vandal throne.

From Wikipedia: Vandal Kingdom · History: Final years and conquest by the Eastern Roman Empire (CC BY-SA 4.0)